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In ambito militare, le munizioni sono oggetti destinati a colpire il nemico allo scopo di danneggiarlo o neutralizzarlo, considerati nell'insieme dei proiettili e dei materiali propellenti confezionati con essi. Il termina deriva dal latino munire, nel medesimo senso dell'italiano, poiché le munizioni costituiscono dotazione principale del soldato.
Glossario
- Proiettili di piccolo calibro, come quelli utilizzati da fucili e pistole (normalmente identificate come armi portatili), sono spesso denominati anche cartucce
- Cartuccia è un insieme organico costituito da proiettile, polveri, inneschi e involucro di contenimento.
- Armi di grosso calibro spesso usano proiettili con esplosivo all'interno.
- Un gran numero di piccoli proiettili sparati tutti insieme in una singola scarica sono detti "rosa". Sono tipici dei fucili.
- Lo sparo a "salve" è un proiettile non in grado di recare danno, che detona facendo il rumore ma non scaglia il proiettile.
Informazioni generali
Il design della munizione è determinato dal suo scopo; la munizione anti-uomo è spesso progettata per esplodere o muoversi all'interno dell'obiettivo, per aumentare l'efficacia del danno causato. La cartuccia di queste munizioni contiene schegge progettate per esplodere in aria, in modo che i suoi frammenti si disperdano in un'ampia zona. La munizione corazzata di solito è dura, affilata, e di diametro sottile, spesso contiene lubrificante. I proiettili incendiari includono un materiale come il fosforo bianco che brucia intensamente. La munizione tracciante emette luce mentre viaggia, permettendo a chi spara di seguire il percorso della pallottola in volo.
I tipi comuni di military rifle e machine-gun ammunition includono la 5.45 mm, 5.56 mm, e 7.62 mm. Main battle tanks use KE-penetrators to combat other MBTs e armoured fighting vehicles, e HE-Frag (High Explosive-Fragmentation) for soft targets come la infantry.
Match-grade ammunition is of exceptionally good quality, intended for target shooting competition.
I componenti della munizione intended for rifles e ordnance possono essere suddivisi in queste categorie:
- esplosivi e propellenti
- proiettili di tutti i tipi
- cartridges
Storage
Historical (circa I Guerra Mondiale)
Queste condizioni generali apply to the storage of ammunition in fortresses. Qui le posizioni for the magazine e ammunition stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from an enemy's fire. Huge earth parapets cover these buildings, which are further strengthened, dove possibile, by traverses protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying, e examining cannon cartridges e shell, a laboratory is generally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various stores for explosives sono classificati in quelli under magazine conditions (come magazines, laboratori, e cartridge stores) e quelli with which these restrictions need not be observed (come ammunition e shell stores). I muri interni of a magazine are lined, e the floors laid so that there may be no exposed iron o steel. At the entrance, there is a lobby o barrier, inside which persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a special suit, e their boots for a pair made without nails. In an ammunition o shell store these precautions need not be taken except where the shell store e the adjacent cartridge store hanno un ingresso comune; persons entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine e several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns o in the expense cartridge stores e cartridge recesses. The same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell stores, expense stores, e recesses.
The supply of ammunition are either for guns forming the movable armament o for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns e howitzers of small e medium caliber, e it is necessary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores e shell stores close to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the projected face of traverses o other strong formations, e should be arranged for a twenty-four hour supply of ammunition. These stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light railways join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two o three guns each, e usually each group will require ma one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store ea general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed e labeled that the required charge, whether reduced o full, can be immediately selected.
In the shell store, the common shell are separated from the armour-piercing o shrapnel. Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to render identification easy. The fuzes e tubes are placed in the general store with the tools e accessories belonging to the guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter e the guns of the group by numerals; thus
In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the efficient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric, o hand-power, hoists are employed to raise the cartridges e shell from the cartridge store e shell store to the gun floor, whence they are transferred to a derrick o loading tray attached to the mounting per caricare the gun.
Projectiles for BL guns above 6 inch (152 mm) calibre are stored in shell stores ready filled e fuzed standing on their bases, except shrapnel e high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in brass corrugated cases o in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened e the cartridges removed e transferred to a leather case when required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the gun in these cylinders, e provision is made for the rapid removal of the empty cylinders.
The number e nature of rounds allotted to any fortress depends on questions of policy e location, the degrees of resistance the nature of the works e personnel could reasonably be expected to give, e finally on the nature of the armament. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for light QF guns it might amount to one thousand o more rounds per gun.
Modern Era
Modern ammunition includes not only shells for tube artillery e mortars, ma increasingly aircraft-delivered bombs, smart bombs, rockets e other explosive-bearing projectiles. The destructive power e lethality of these systems is difficult to appreciate. A single cluster bomb, deliverable by any of the above systems, can sow grenade-sized bomblets across a 100 yard (90m) football-sized field in sufficient density to kill any persons present, even in trenches e wearing body armor.
See ammo dump for discussion of modern ammunition storage facilities.
Supply of ammunition in the field
With every successive improvement in military arms there has necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of supplying ammunition e in the quantity required to be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the principal implements of battle, there was no such need. Ma nel Medioevo, the archers e crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts e bolts expended in action, e during a siege, stone bullets of great size, as well as heavy arrows, were freely used. The missiles of those days were however interchangeable, e at the battle of Towton (1461) the commander of the Yorkist archers induced the enemy to fire arrows in order to obtain them for firing back. This interchangeability of war material was even possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms. At the battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general officer was specially commissioned by Frederick the Great to pack up e send away, for Prussian use, all the muskets e ammunition left on the field of battle by the defeated Austrians.
Captured material is utilized whenever possible at the present time. In the Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the Chinese guns they expected to capture. Though it is rare to find a modern army trusting to captures for arms e ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice is that of the Chilean Civil War (1891) in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms e cartridges. But what was possible with weapons of comparatively rough make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms.
The Lee-Metford bullet of 0.303 inch (7.7 mm) diameter can scarcely be used in a rifle of smaller caliber, e in general the minute accuracy of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeability almost impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in modern arms, ammunition is expended, e the fact that, as battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammunition, the soldier could only carry a few rounds. Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is described in the present article is the British, as laid down in the official Combined Training (1905) e other manuals. The new system designed for stronger divisions, e others, vary only in details e nomenclature.
Ammunition for infantry
Ammunition for infantry refers to the ammunition carried by a typical foot (infantry) soldier. Someone serving in the infantry generally carries, in pouches, bandoliers, etc., one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition (S.A.A.), e it is usual to supplement this, when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below). Like any trade, the proper tools are necessary for the task at hand. Infantry need to be provided with the weapons e ammunition to deal with the expected threat, be it another foot soldier, a mounted warrior, armoured vehicle o aircraft.
Storia
Every reduction in the caliber (size) of the rifle's ammunition significa un aumento nel numero di rounds carried. One hundred rounds of the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed 10 pounds 10 ounces (4.8 kg); the same weight gives 155 rounds of 0.303 in (7.7 mm) ammunition e at 0.256 in (6.5 mm) the number of rounds is still greater. The regimental reserves were historically carried in six S.A.A. carts e on eight pack animals. The six carts are distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun, three as reserve to the battalion itself, e two as part of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of the artillery (see below). The eight pack animals follow the eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, the remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men also are employed as carriers, e this duty is so onerous that picked men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, e 16.000 to 17.600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds with the machine gun e 16,000 more in the fifth cart.
Current small arms ammunition
Currently, every army of an internationally recognized country (except those who rely on others for defense, come Andorra, e quelle che non hanno un vero esercito, come la Città del Vaticano) has adopted assault rifles as the main infantry weapon.
In western (NATO) forces, the 7.62mm (.308 Winchester) round has been mostly replaced by the lighter 5.56mm (.223) round, which allows each soldier to carry more ammunition. The heavier caliber ammunition is often still retained for machine guns e sniper rifles.
For instance, the infantry dell'United States Army is equipped with a Colt M16 as the main weapon, e carries six magazines each holding 30 rounds of 5.56 mm ammunition. Infantry in the Royal Norwegian Army carry the Heckler & Koch G3, e five 20-round magazines. Less affluent nations, e forces with former ties to the Soviet Union tend to use rifles in the AK-47 family.
Anti-tank
L'uso di veicoli in combat made horse mounted cavalry obsolete e meant that those weapons provided to infantry to deal with a horse-borne enemy (quite often the same as that for defeating a man) would have to be replaced by ordnance capable of defeating significant armour protection moving at speed. Initial anti-tank weapons (being useful against all lesser vehicle threats) allocated to inantry were often upsized small arms (for example the anti-tank rifle e Brownings original 0.50 inch machine gun). These were in turn made obsolete by the rapid development of the tank, with the use of more powerful engines, more e more armour was capable of being carried e the ability of ammunition that relied solely upon kinetic energy to penetrate this armour would be as prohibitively heavy as the bulky weapon needed to fire it. Enter the shaped charge warhead. Coupled to a rocket motor, the shaped charge warhead provided a powerful, yet compact weapon that became a mainstay to infantry from World War II onwards. Typified by the US Bazooka, German Panzerfaust e Russian RPG these weapons were ideal for close range usage which allowed a soldier to strike at a vehicles weakest points. Post-World War II missile technology was applied to the shaped charge e provided infantry with a weapon that could reliably destroy the heaviest main battle tanks at relatively great distances, finally superseding anti-tank artillery e infantry support weapons like the recoiless rifle.
Anti-aircraft
Today's infantryman can deploy sophisticated multi-spectral man-portable surface-to-air missiles equipped with the ability to reject decoys e defeat counter-measures. In Somalia it was demonstrated that slow moving/stationary aircraft at low altitudes could be defeated with unguided anti-armour infantry weapons. It is also true that aircraft are relatively delicate machines, filled with highly flammable fuel, e since their first usage in World War I a plane can be brought down by single bullet striking something vital. The main weaknesses of ammunition provided to infantry to deal with aircraft are limited range e small warheads, both due to the necessity that such weapons remain portable by men on foot. The premier SAM for infantry is the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS (Man Portable Air Defence System), provided as an all-up round in a canister it is attached to a launcher unit e is ready to expend. Numerous other missiles in this class exist from different nations of origin. Infantry machine guns and rifles may improve their ability against aircraft by utilising tracer ammunition, to allow the aimer to better gauge the lead aim necessary to strike his target. Weapons developed primarily for anti-tank roles can add proximity fusing to increase the probability of a kill by having the warhead detonate nearby the target with having to make contact.
Ammunition per artiglieria
Modern artillery ammunition is generally di due tipi: separate loading e semi-fixed. Semi-fixed ammunition (rounds) appear in the form of a projectile mated with a cartridge case which contains the propellant e they resemble small arms rounds.
The canister is outfitted with a primer on its base which fires upon contact from the firing pin. Black powder, precision machined to burn evenly, is contained inside of cloth bags that are numbered. US/NATO 105mm howitzers use semi-fixed ammunition, containing seven powder bags referred to as increments o charges. Putting the powder in bags allows the howitzer crew to remove the increments when firing at closer targets. The unused increments are disposed of by burning in a powder pit at a safe distance from the guns.
Above a certain size, semi-fixed rounds are impracticable; the weight of the whole assembly is either too much to be carried effectively. In this case separate loading ammunition is used: the projectile e propelling charge are supplied e loaded separately. The projectile is rammed home in the chamber, the powder charge(s) are loaded (usually by hand), then the breech is closed e the primer is inserted into the primer holder on the back the breech. Separate loading ammunition is typically used on 155mm e larger howitzers. Several propellant types are available for 155mm howitzer.
All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the fuze well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed e a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center e carried out by the gun crew.
Ammunition for tanks
The armaments fitted to early tanks were often contemporary field artillery pieces e used the same ammunition. When tank versus tank combat became more important, the trend became that anti-aircraft artillery pieces (designed to fire high velocity shells to altitude) were often adapted to tank use where a gun specifically made for the vehicle was not available. So the level of armour applied to tanks increased, tank ammunition evolved from its artillery origins (designed to maim soldiers) towards shaped charge e kinetic energy penetrators (armour penetration). One of the steps along this path is the return to smooth bored tank guns, which retain high accuracy when coupled to computerised fire control systems. Thus the latest tank gun ammunition is a single all-up round (warhead e propellant combined) so that it can be loaded quickly, using a combustible case (so that there is little o no debris to clutter an already confined space within the turret), with a saboted penetrator, shaped charge o sensor fused warhead.
Naval ammunition
The ranges at which engagements are conducted by warships are typically much greater than that at which land warfare is observed. The targets are also generally machines, not men. Naval ammunition is therefore optimized for great velocity (to reach those great ranges, to hit aircraft flying at altitude e also with the benefit of reducing the lead that has to be applied to hit a distant moving target) e to disable said machines, rather than rending human flesh. Naval gun ammunition of WWII vintage came in two main varieties, armour piercing shells to attack hardened warships o high explosive shells (with point detonating fuses to start fires on ships, o mechanical time fuses designed to create clouds of schrapnel to defeat aircraft). With the demise of the armoured warship, contemporary naval gun ammunition is solely the high explosive variety, ma new fusing e guidance options are available to increase lethality, especially against high speed missile o aircraft threats.
Fuzes
Common artillery fuzes include point detonating, delay, time, e proximity (variable time). Point detonating fuzes detonate upon contact with the ground. Delay fuzes are designed to penetrate a short distance before detonating. Time fuzes, as the name implies, detonate a certain time after being fired in order to achieve an air burst above the target. Time fuzes are set to the tenth of a second. Proximity o variable time fuzes contain a simple radio transceiver activated a set time after firing to detonate the projectile when the signal reflected from the ground reaches a certain strength, designed to be 7 metri above the ground. Fuzes are armed by the rotation of the projectile imparted by the rifling in the tube, e usually arm after a few hundred rotations.
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