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Sniper_Elite :: Snipers
 

The term sniper is attested from 1824 in the sense of "sharpshooter." The verb to snipe originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India in the sense of "to shoot from a hidden place," in allusion to snipe hunting, a game bird known for being difficult to sneak up on. Those who were skilled at the hunting of this bird were dubbed snipers.

The term thus emphasises field craft and skills of camouflage as well as marksmanship, and is typically used for infantry soldiers so skilled, who specialize in killing selected enemies from concealment with a rifle at long distances.

During the American Civil War, the common term used instead of sniper in the United States for much the same function as sniper was skirmisher. A Civil War army often protected itself when on the move by using such concealed marksmen, who were deployed individually on the extremes of the moving army. Generally, such skirmishers were selected on the basis of prior proven hunting and marksmanship skills, and they were often older men in their 40's or 50's. * The term sniper hence did not reach widespread use in the United States until somewhat later than the American Civil War.

In the last few decades the term 'sniper' has been used rather loosely, especially by media in association with police precision riflemen, those responsible for assassination, any shooting from all but the shortest range in war, and any criminal equipped with a rifle in a civil context. This has rather expanded the general understanding of the meaning of the term. It has also given the term 'sniper' mixed connotations. Alternative terms are usually more specific, especially for police snipers such as "counter-sniper," "precision marksman," "tactical marksman," "sharpshooter" or "precision shooter," some of which have also been used for a long time.

Snipers in warfare

Different countries have different military doctrines regarding snipers in Military units, settings, and tactics. Generally, a sniper's goal in warfare is to reduce the enemy's fighting ability by striking at a small number of high value targets, such as officers.

Soviet Russian and derived military doctrines include squad-level "snipers," which may be called "sharpshooters" or "designated riflemen" in other doctrines (see below). They do so because this ability was lost to ordinary troops when assault rifles (which are optimized for close-in, rapid-fire combat) were adopted. See the "Soviet sniper" article for details.

Military snipers from the U.S., UK and countries that adopt their military doctrine, are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. The two have different functions and hence their assignment corresponds to their skills, but a common practice is for the shooter and spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue.

Typical sniper missions include reconnaissance and surveillance, anti-sniper, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even anti-matériel tasks (destruction of military equipment), which tend to require use of rifles in the larger calibers such as the .50 BMG (Browning Machine Gun). Snipers have of late been increasingly demonstrated as useful by U.S. and U.K. forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas.

The current record for longest range sniper kill is 2430 metres (7,972 ft), accomplished by a Canadian sniper, Corporal Rob Furlong, of the third battalion Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (3 PPCLI), during the invasion of Afghanistan, using a .50 BMG (12.7 mm) McMillan bolt-action rifle. This meant that the round had a flight time of four seconds, and a drop of 44.5 m (146 ft). The previous record was held by Carlos Hathcock, achieved during the Vietnam War, at a distance of 2250 m.

By contrast, much of the U.S./Coalition urban sniping in support of operations in Iraq is at much shorter ranges, although in one notable incident on April 3 2003, corporals Matt and Sam Hughes, a two man sniper team of the Royal Marines, armed with L96 sniper rifles each killed targets at a range of about 860 m with shots that, due to strong wind, had to be "fireexactly 17 metres [56 ft to the left of the target for the bullet to bend in the wind"Nick Parker, (a pooled Gulf War correspondent), Royal Marine snipers in Iraq published in The Sun April 2003

In the Bosnian War, and for much of the Siege of Beirut, the term "sniper" was used to refer to what were generally ill-trained soldiers who terrorized civilians. During the Siege of Sarajevo, the main street of the city became known as "Sniper Alley".

Police snipers

Police forces typically deploy snipers in hostage scenarios. They are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life. Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under 100 meters and sometimes even less than 50 meters. Police snipers do not generally attempt to shoot to incapacitate; when they shoot, they shoot to kill, though there have been some notable exceptions with varying success.

The need for specialized training for police snipers was made apparent in 1972 during the incident known as the Munich massacre; the police deployed untrained personnel with sniper equipment during the standoff at the airport in the closing phase of the crisis. The German constitution forbade aggressive military style training for police units (fearing the precedent set by paramilitary security units during the Third Reich period) and consequently all of the Israeli hostages were killed in a colossal blunder precipitated by the untrained snipers.

Other uses for police snipers are less common and more controversial. In one high-profile incident, a SWAT sniper in Columbus, Ohio prevented a potential suicide by shooting a revolver out of the target's hand. Despite this success, video footage later revealed the target narrowly avoided severe injury from shrapnel. Subsequent tests on guns, rifles, and knives have nearly always resulted in potentially deadly explosions, caused firearms to discharge, or failed to disable some weapons at all. Several later attempts by other police forces to disarm potential firearm suicides with snipers have often resulted in the death or severe permanent injury of the target. Also, firing a bullet in the direction of a target is considered deadly force in most jurisdictions, and the use of deadly force to subdue a potential suicide victim is illegal in many of these.

In peacetime, police snipers like those of the FBI's Critical Incident Response Group (e.g. the Hostage Rescue Team) typically serve longer in the role, receiving more training and more operational experience than their military counterparts.

Sniper consistency

The key to sniping is consistency, which applies to both the weapon and the shooter. While consistency does not necessarily ensure accuracy (which requires training), sniping cannot be accurately carried out without it.

Although there is always a degree of randomness due to the physics of bullets and explosions, a precision sniping rifle must limit this effect. When fired from a fixed position, all shots must be extremely close together, even at long range. Similarly, a sniper must have the ability to estimate range, wind, elevation, and any other major factors that can alter the shot. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or even cause a shot to miss completely.

Snipers generally prefer to zero their weapons at a target range, although it can also be done in the field. This is where the sniper calibrates their rifle with their scope at a particular range (typically their most common encounter distance) such that shots will reliably strike their target. A rifle must maintain its zero in the field, or else it must be re-zeroed before the next encounter. Once zeroed, the rifle can be adjusted for other distances or for wind using estimates, calculations, and scope features.

The military need for consistency is highest when a sniper is firing the first shot against an enemy unaware of the sniper's presence. At this point, high-priority targets such as enemy snipers, officers, and critical equipment are most prominent and can be more accurately targeted. A sniper must know how a hot or cold gun barrel, different surrounding temperatures, and different altitudes can affect the flight of the bullet. Once the first shot has been fired, any surviving enemy will attempt to take cover or locate the sniper, and attacking strategic targets becomes more difficult or impossible.

The need for police sniper consistency is high when in a hostage situation. Firing a shot but failing to immediately incapacitate an armed threat is likely to result in the death of hostages, and cause the aggressor to cease negotiations and retreat to cover. In this situation, lives can depend on the result of a single shot, and it is this pressure that police snipers must overcome when firing.

A sandbag helps a sniper achieve the best accuracy, although these are typically only available in target shooting, police stand-offs, and base defense. In the field, a bipod is more common, although any soft surface such as a rucksack will steady a rifle and contribute to consistency. In particular, bipods help when firing from a prone position, and enable firing position to be sustained for an extended period of time. Many police and military sniper rifles come equipped with an adjustable bipod.

Sniper training

Good training is essential to provide a sniper with the skills needed to perform well. Military sniper training aims to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking and observation as well as precision marksmanship under wide operational conditions. Trainees typically shoot thousands of rounds over a number of weeks, while learning these core skills.

Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. The most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock's cheek-piece against the cheek. In the field, a bipod can be used instead. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement. Some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their shot. Some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion.

US Military

Snipers are volunteers accepted for sniper training on the basis of their aptitude as perceived by their commanders. Military snipers may be trained as FACs (Forward Air Controllers) to direct military air strikes, FOs (Forward Observers) in artillery target indication, and as mortar fire controllers (MFCs). Effective sniping in a military context may necessitate assuming a stationary position for days at a time. Fatigue and muscle stiffness often result from the mandatory immobility. Also, urination and defecation into a bag or other container may become essential. These factors alone contradict much of the glamour portrayed in popular movies.

Targeting

The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges. For instance, a bullet may drop only 4 or 5 inches per hundred meters traveled early in its flight. But between the 700th and 800th meter, that same bullet may drop well over 100 inches--meaning that a range estimation error of just 100 meters may result in the bullet passing 10 feet over the head of the target.

Laser range-finders may be used, but is not preferred on the battle field because a laser can be seen by both the sender and the receiver. One useful method is comparing the height of the target (or nearby objects) to their size on the mil dot scope, or taking a known distance and using some sort of measure (utility poles, fence posts) to determine the additional distance. The average human head] is 150 mm (6 inches) in width, average human shoulders are 500 mm (20 inches) apart and the average distance from a person’s crotch to the top of their head is 1 m (39 inches).

To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper must use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) x 1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7x, 40x) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milli-radian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard (36 inches) at 1000 yards. Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier with which to work.

Explanation: 1 MIL = 1 milli-radian. That is, 1 MIL = 1x10^-3 radian. But, 10^-3 rad x (360 deg/(2 x Pi) radians) = 0.0573 degrees. Now, 1 MOA = 1/60 degree = 0.01667 degrees. Hence, there are 0.0573/0.01667 = 3.43775 MOA per MIL, where MIL is defined as a milli-radian. On the other hand, defining a mil-dot by the US Army way, to equate it to 1 yard at 1000 yards, means the Army's mil-dot is approximately 3.6 MOA.

At longer ranges, bullet drop plays a significant role in targeting. The effect can be estimated from a chart which may be memorised or taped to the rifle, although some scopes come with Bullet Drop Compensator (BDC) systems that only require the range be dialed in. These are tuned to both a specific class of rifle and specific ammunition. It must be noted that every bullet type and load will have different ballistics. .308 Federal 175 grain (11.3 g) BTHP match shoots at 2600 ft/s (790 m/s). Zeroed at 100 yards, a 16.2 MOA adjustment would have to be made to hit a target at 600 yards. If the same bullet was shot with 168 grain (10.9 g), a 17.1 MOA adjustment would be necessary.

Shooting uphill or downhill can require more adjustment due to the effects of gravity. Wind also plays a role, the effect increasing with wind speed or the distance of the shot. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim.

All adjustments for range, wind, and elevation can be performed by "holding off" by eye, also known as Kentucky windage. The most accurate way is called "dialing in" the scope. This adjusts the scope so that the crosshairs point at the target, while also accounting for the effect of the factors above. With precision mechanics, dialling in is more accurate, as the eye can more easily line up and hold the target.

For moving targets, the point of aim is in front of the target. This is known as "leading" the target, where the amount of lead depends on the speed and angle of the target's movement. For this technique, holding off is the preferred method. Anticipating the behavior of the target is necessary to accurately place the shot.

Sniper equipment

Sniper rifles

Historic military sniper rifles up to and including the Second World War were usually based on the standard service rifle of the country in question. They included the German Mauser K98k, U.S. Springfield 1903 and M1 Garand, Soviet Mosin-Nagant, Norwegian Krag-Jørgensen, Japanese Arisaka and British Lee Enfield No 4. Models used for sniping were generally factory tested for accuracy and fitted with specialized components, including not just optics but also such items as slings, cheekpieces, and flash eliminators.

Modern sniper rifles, from the 1960s onwards, have been increasingly purpose-built. The critical goal is reliable placement of the first shot within one MOA (minute of angle). Most include special features for this purpose, including tight building tolerances and precise components. Measures are also taken to ensure the rifle is affected as little as possible by heating, vibration and other effects which may reduce accuracy.

Among the three best-known sniper rifles in the English speaking world are the U.S. Army's M24 SWS, the U.S. Marine Corps' M40 and the British Accuracy International L96 and AWM. The M24 and M40 are precision rifles built based on the civilian Remington 700 bolt action rifle, the best selling bolt-action in North America and dating back to 1962. The British L96/AW was designed by Malcolm Cooper, a British civilian Olympic shooter. Also famous, after setting the world distance record in Afghanistan, is the MacMillan Tac50 used by Canadian sniper teams.

Sniper rifles' sights are almost always telescopic. The reticle of the scope often contains markings other than the cross-hairs found in hunting rifle scopes. Some markings assist in range estimation by corresponding to standard objects at different ranges; other marks, such as mil-dots, assist both in "aiming off" for windage and in "holding off" to adjust for distance and elevation. Mil dots are also used for range estimation.

Sniper rifles' scopes rarely magnify more than 11x; the AW in British service has a fixed magnification of 10.5x. Modern sniper rifles often forgo open sights, relying entirely on the scope. Examples include the U.S. M21, M24, and M40. The British AW is still equipped with auxiliary open sights. Some scopes have fixed magnification as low as 3x. Police sniper rifles often have an adjustable zoom scope, as much police work is done at close range and a high magnification scope restricts the field of view. Some sniper equipment also includes an image intensifying adapter to convert the normal scope for night work.

Semi-automatic sniper rifles are currently less common than bolt-action rifles, with the notable exception of the Russian Dragunov in 7.62 x 54 mm R (the old Soviet rimmed battle rifle cartridge originally chambered in the Mosin-Nagant). The Dragunov is relatively common in the sphere of influence of the former Eastern bloc. The Dragunov in 7.62x54 is not as precise as the M21, M40 or AW series. A precision semi-automatic rifle is expensive and most sniping doctrines make the semi-automatic function superfluous. Precision semi-automatic sniper rifles exist for specialised applications, such as the Heckler & Koch PSG1 and Knight's Armament SR25M.

Since 1985, some services have adopted sniper rifles that fire rounds larger or more powerful than those of a standard battle rifle. Such rifles are used for anti-matériel missions (hard target interdiction in U.S. doctrines) and use at extremely long range. They are big, heavy, cumbersome, very loud and expensive. In many sniping missions these would be a disadvantage, but these large rifles do have a tactical niche.

Such rifles include the Barrett M82A1 chambered in the .50 BMG (Browning Machine Gun) cartridge. This cartridge generates about six times the energy of a 7.62 x 51 mm NATO cartridge. Splitting the difference between the huge .50 BMG and the 7.62 x 51 mm in the power stakes are the .338 Lapua and .408 Chey-Tac. A new Sniper rifle undergoing testing is the Barrett XM109 rifle, firing a high-explosive 25 mm round.

Ammunition

Most snipers are issued match-grade military ammunition. Ammunition with a boat-tail (narrowing at the base end) is often selected for long-range sniping.

Though target shooters often assemble their own ammunition from components to more precisely control the load and tune it to the specific rifle and task, this is practically unknown in military and police circles (as this may interefere with various laws regarding due process and NATO codes).

Ideally, a shooter would acquire rounds from a single lot (batch) of manufactured ammunition, zero the rifle to that lot, and then use only that ammunition until it runs out. This ensures that every bullet is as similar as possible to the previous one, and assists consistency (as well as confidence). However this is rarely practicable. A sniper will enter information into a data, or dope (Data On Personal Equipment) book, such as lot number, temperature, wind speed/direction, humidity and altitude. If the same conditions are encountered again, the data is available to assist in making an accurate shot. Most information gathering must start over if the barrel is replaced, as each barrel has distinct characteristics.

Velocity of a sniper bullet

Sniper rifles generally project bullets at the same velocities employed by general purpose firearms. However, they often use projectiles with particularly high ballistic coefficients (ie. They often use bullets that are very aerodynamic.)

Depending on the rifle, bullets typically travel between 2600 and 3400 feet per second. A bullet traveling at these speeds crosses the length of 7 full-size football fields in one second. In reality, the bullet slows down considerably due to friction with the air over these distances. The range of a bullet depends on how far it can travel before gravity pulls it to the ground.

In practice, the limiting factor on range is bullet deceleration. In sniping, it is generally considered essential that the bullet still be traveling at a supersonic speed on arrival, near its terminal velocity. As the bullet decelerates below the speed of sound, the kinetic energy available on impact, and the accuracy of the bullet, fall off rather suddenly. In the case of the typical .308 Winchester sniping round, this equates to a maximum theoretical range of about 1,100 to 1,200 meters.

Conversely, at close ranges, and using suppressed firearms, subsonic ammunition may be used to reduce drastically the sound signature of a rifle.

The best marksman and rifle combination are still unable to reliably hit targets at ranges beyond 1000 meters. At extended ranges, the effects of factors such as air density, wind, bullet drop estimations and variances between individual rounds are increased. It is not uncommon for the effective range of a sniper system to be stated as 600 to 800 meters.

Camouflage

Good camouflage, combined with movement discipline, is what makes snipers difficult to detect.

The glint of the scope's optics is the only part of a sniper that cannot be camouflaged, but shine can be reduced by using a piece of fabric or a metal mesh over the scope. Snipers avoid anything that glints or clanks, including glasses and white faces.

Snipers facing well-equipped forces must camouflage themselves in Infrared (or IR) as well as light. They use material with a thin layer of evaporated aluminum to reflect the IR, such as plastic foil blankets. Originally these were thermal blankets, covered with local foliage or material. This is taken from at least 275 m (300 yards) away, in order to prevent disturbance of the sniping position's natural cover. However, the best defense a sniper has against IR is putting a hill between himself and the target thusly negating the IR's ability to detect heat.

Ghillie suit
Snipers with extreme requirements for infiltration and camouflage use a ghillie suit, also known as a yowie suit. The ghillie suit was originally developed by Scottish game wardens to better count game and catch poachers.

Ghillie suits can be constructed in many different ways. Some services make them of rough burlap (hessian) flaps attached to a net poncho. US Army Ghillie suits are often built using a pilot's flightsuit, battle dress uniform (BDU), or some other one-piece coverall as the base. Unscented dental floss or a similar thread is used to sew each knot of fishnet to the fabric, in the areas to be camouflaged. A drop of Shoe Goo is applied to each knot for strength. The desired jute is applied to the netting by tying groups of 3 to 4 strands of a color to the netting with simple knots, skipping sections to be filled in with other colors.

A ghillie suit is usually prepared by assembling, then beating and dragging it behind a car or otherwise subjecting the suit to heavy wear. As with the foil blankets mentioned above, a ghillie suit that closely matches the actual terrain of the zone of operation will stand out less, so elements of that general environment (local foliage or other matter) may also be included in the netting.

An inherent problem with ghillie suits is internal (and sometimes, external) temperatures. Even in relatively moderate climates, the temperature inside of the ghillie suit can soar to over 50 °C (120 °F). This can also cause fire concerns, and usually suits have spray on flame retardant applied.

Tick suit
The best-equipped snipers use a Tick suit. This consists of IR-proof material that hangs in folds over the sniper, breaking up the outline on a scope. The outer layers of a tick suit resemble a ghillie suit, camouflaging the sniper in visible light.

Sniper tactics

Shot placement

Shot placement varies considerably with the type of sniper being discussed. Military snipers who generally do not engage targets at less then 300 m (330 yd), usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest and depending on tissue damage, organ trauma and blood loss to make the kill. Police snipers who generally engage at much shorter distances may attempt head shots to ensure the kill. In instant-death hostage situations, police snipers shoot for the cerebellum, a part of the brain that controls voluntary movement that lies at the base of the skull. Some ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal cord at an area near the second cervical vertebra is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity, but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at present.

Positioning

To perform civil pacification, sniper-suppression, and intelligence, a sniper or pair of snipers will locate themselves in a high, concealed redoubt. They will use binoculars or a telescope to identify targets, and a radio to provide intelligence.

Snipers use deception, in the form of camouflage, unusual angles of approach, and frequent, often slow movement to prevent accurate counter-attacks. Some snipers are able to shoot an observant target from less than 90 m (98 yd), while the target is searching for them, without being seen.

Targets

A sniper identifies targets by their appearance and behavior. Such characteristics may include wearing high-rank uniforms, talking to radio operators, sitting as a passenger in a car, having military servants, or talking and moving position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.

To perform suppressive fire to cover a retreat, a sniper positions himself, hidden, with a view to a large open space. When a pair of enemy squads attempts a crossing, the sniper disables one person, preferably a leader. Most often this is a hip shot, possibly followed by a jaw shot to prevent effective instruction. When the squad attempts a rescue, the sniper uses rapid fire, aiming for the trunks of enemy soldiers to kill as many as possible. A prudent sniper leaves the area at this point, anticipating the flanking attack that normally follows. A sniper may then ambush one of the flanks, and if possible, will move outside the flank to do so.

Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high-value targets of opportunity.

With heavy .50 calibre rifles, snipers can shoot turbine disks of parked jet fighters, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, or the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. Such methods often employ anti-matériel rifles. Similarly, snipers may shoot locks or hinges instead of using a door-opening charge.

It should be noted, however, that the substantive blast of the .50 BMG round utilized in these rifles is hard to conceal, kicking up dust and debris. Therefore, slightly smaller rounds such as the .338 Lapua Magnum have gained favor for anti-matériel use as of late.

Psychological warfare

To demoralize enemy troops, snipers can follow predictable patterns. During the Cuban revolutionary war, the 26th of July Movement always killed the foremost man in a group of Batista's soldiers. Realizing this, none of them would walk first, as it was suicidal. This effectively decreased the army's willingness to search for rebel bases in the mountains. An alternative approach is to kill the second man in a row, leading to the psychological effect that nobody will want to follow the "leader" on first position.

A common technique for a combat sniper to use when facing superior forces (especially those untrained in sniper or counter-sniper tactics) in relatively close combat is to fire at a particular target's abdomen; the specific objective being a slow death by blood loss. The hope is that, following the initial duck-and-cover reaction by the target's comrades, one or more of them will expose himself to further fire in an attempt to help the downed target. The sniper may then eliminate or attempt, again, the same type of shot on the comrade and repeat the cycle, thus maximizing his effectiveness. This has an extremely negative psychological effect on the sniper's target unit, as they are exposed to the suffering of their comrades, but are powerless to assist them. A fictional example of this tactic being used may be seen in the film Full Metal Jacket.

Counter-sniper tactics

The occurrence of sniper warfare has led to the evolution of many counter-sniper tactics in modern military strategies. These aim to reduce the damage caused by a sniper to an army, which can often be harmful to both fighting capabilities and morale.

Ultimately, snipers are difficult to stop. However, there are methods available (used singly or in concert) which can be used to make life difficult for them or generally cause hinderance.

The risk of damage to a chain of command can be reduced by removing/concealing features which would otherwise indicate an officer’s rank. If a sniper is attacking, they must be located in order to counter-attack. Another sniper is often used to hunt the enemy sniper, although many techniques can be used by defending forces to ascertain the sniper’s location (besides direct observation). These include calculating the trajectory of a bullet by triangulation, i.e. using decoys to lure a sniper into firing, thereby possibly revealing his position. Traditionally, triangulation of a sniper's position was done manually, though radar-based technology has recently become available.

Apart from countering an enemy sniper by employing another sniper or using pincer movements to encircle the threat, various other tactics exist which can be used by a squad. These include directing artillery or mortar fire onto suspected sniper positions, plus the use of smoke-screens, emplacing tripwire-operated munitions, mines or other booby-traps. Even dummy trip-wires can be emplaced to inconvenience sniper movement. Where anti-personnel mines are unavailable, it is possible to improvise booby-traps by connecting trip-wires to fragmentation hand-grenades, smoke grenades or flares. Even though these may not kill the sniper they will reveal his location and artillery/mortar fire can then be directed onto the area. Booby-trap devices should be placed close to likely sniper hides or along the probable routes used into and out of the sniper's work area. Knowledge of sniper field-craft will assist in this task (such as a good sniper will fire at a target with the sun behind him, if he can).

One very old counter-sniper tactic is to tie rags onto bushes or similar items in the danger area. The rags flutter in the breeze creating random movements in the corner of the sniper's eye, which they find distracting. The main virtue of this tactic is that it is easy to use, though it will definitely not stop a professional sniper from selecting targets.

The United States military also is funding a project known as RedOwl, which uses laser and acoustic sensors to determine the exact direction from which a sniper round has been fired. The RedOwl system has been tested on the PackBot robot from iRobot.*

Snipers in irregular and asymmetric combat

The use of sniping (in the sense of shooting at relatively long range from a concealed position) to murder came to public attention in a number of sensational U.S. cases, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966, the John F. Kennedy assassination, and the Washington sniper serial murders of late 2002. However, these incidents usually do not involve the range or skill of military snipers; in all three cases the perpetrators had US military training, but in other specialties. News reports will often (inaccurately) use the term sniper to describe anyone shooting with a rifle at another person.

Sniping has also been used in irregular and asymmetric warfare situations, for example in the Northern Ireland troubles, where in the early seventies a number of soldiers were shot by concealed riflemen, some at considerable range. There were also a few instances in the early '90s of British soldiers being shot with .50 calibre Barrett rifles. In Northern Ireland, in addition to the uses listed above, a sniper was quite often a form of bait called a "come-on", whereby the sniper's position would be made obvious to a British patrol so as to draw them into an ambush in their attempt to close on the sniper.

The sniper is particularly suited to combat environments where one side is disadvantaged to the other. A careful sniping pattern can leverage a very few individuals and resources to thwart movement or other progress from a much better equipped or larger force.

Because of this perceived difference in force size, the sniping attacks may be viewed as the act of a few persons to terrorize (earning the moniker terrorists) a much larger, regular force — regardless of the size of the force the snipers are attached to.

These perceptions stem from the precept that sniping, while effective in specific instances, is much more effective as a broadly deployed psychological attack (see elsewhere in article).

"Sniper" versus "marksman" or "sharpshooter"

Some doctrines distinguish a "sniper" from a "marksman" ("sharpshooter") or "designated marksman". While snipers are intensively trained to master field craft and camouflage, these skills are not required for sharpshooters. Snipers often perform valuable reconnaissance and have a psychological impact on the enemy. A sharpshooter's role is mainly to extend the reach of the squad to which he is attached.

Many people today do not properly distinguish the differences between a sniper and a sharpshooter. Snipers rely almost exclusively on stealthy bolt-action rifles, while a sharpshooter can effectively utilize a faster-firing, but more conspicuous semi-automatic rifle. In some military doctrines, a two-man sniper team consists of a sniper who uses a bolt-action rifle, and a sniper support (usually the spotter) who uses a semi-automatic sniper rifle, or at times an assault rifle or carbine.

A sniper also uses intensive training for mastering the art of stealth, concealment, and infiltration for forward placement and surveillance duties making the role more strategic than a squad-level sharpshooter. Thus, sharpshooters are often attached at the squad level while snipers are often attached at higher levels such as battalion. In fact, it is highly mistaken that marksmen and sharpshooters are most capable of becoming a true sniper. A sniper is a highly skilled and intelligent soldier who did not qualify solely by accuracy.

Selected infamous snipers in history

Even before firearms were available, soldiers such as archers were specially trained as elite marksmen.

Pre 20th century

  • The first modern firearm snipers may have been trained in 16th century Japan as a type of ninja or shinobi. They were supposedly trained to cover retreating armies. The sniper would lay in concealed ambush until an officer of the advancing army came into his firing range. There are several confirmed records of such attempts. Most were unsuccessful; the rifles used were of large caliber, but also of poor accuracy. Despite this, one of Japan's most famous warlords, Takeda Shingen, is reported to have been fatally wounded by a sniper's bullet.
  • Timothy Murphy was a rifleman in Daniel Morgan's Virginia riflemen in 1777. On 7 October, he shot and killed General Simon Fraser of the British army. Murphy was said to have taken the shot at roughly 450 m (500 yd), which was astounding at the time. He used the renowned Kentucky Rifle. The death of General Fraser caused the failure of his reconnaissance force. This had direct impact on the British advance, which faltered, and the opposing American forces won the battle. The Battle of Saratoga is considered to be one of the turning points in the American war of Independence.
  • In the Napoleonic Wars, the British copied colonial weapons and tactics in a limited number of rifle companies. They dressed (unsportingly) in green to avoid visibility, and were instructed to shoot enemy officers. On the naval front sharpshooters were sometimes employed during boarding actions and at close range, their positions in the fighting tops allowing them to shoot enemy officers, whose gaudy uniforms made them extremely visible. This visibility was offset by the poor accuracy of the firearms, poor training and ship sway. However during the pivotal Battle of Trafalgar, on October 21, 1805, as the British flagship HMS Victory locked masts with the French Redoutable, a sharpshooter's bullet struck Admiral Horatio Nelson in the spine. Nelson was carried below decks and died as the battle that would make him a legend was ending in favour of the British.
  • British Rifleman Thomas Plunkett of the 1st Battalion, 95th Rifles is remembered for shooting French General Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 metres during the Peninsular war. He used a Baker rifle.Stuart Hadaway Rifleman Thomas Plunkett: 'A Pattern for the Battalion.'
  • Colonel Hiram Berdan was the commanding officer of the 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters. Although snipers were held in low regard by both sides during the American Civil War, under his tutelage, skilled Union marksmen were trained and equipped with the .52 caliber Sharps Rifle. It has been claimed that Berdan's units were responsible for killing more enemies than any other unit in the Union Army. On May 9, 1864 during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, Sgt. Grace of the 4th Georgia Infantry, sniped Major General John Sedgwick at the then incredible distance of 730 m (800 yd), with a British Whiteworth target rifle. The death of Sedgwick, a corps commander, caused administrative delays in the Union's attack, leading to Confederate victory. Before Sedgwick was shot, he was advised by his men to take cover. Legend has it that his last words were, "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist-" upon which he was shot. In reality, he was shot a few minutes later.

20th century

  • Simo Häyhä (December 17, 1906 – April 1, 2002) of Finland is regarded by many as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare. Using a relatively primitive Mosin-Nagant Model 28, Häyhä sniped 542 Soviet Union soldiers in the Winter War between November 30, 1939 and March 6, 1940, before he was seriously wounded. Finnish snipers were called cuckoos by Russians, because they thought that all Finnish snipers were located in trees.
  • Sulo Kolkka was a Finnish sniper in the Winter War (1939–1940) between Finland and Soviet Union which formed part of World War II. During 105 days of combat Kolkka was credited with more than 400 enemy kills as a sniper in the Winter War. He used an iron sighted Mosin-Nagant rifle.
  • Vasily Zaitsev was a Soviet sniper who burst into fame during the Battle of Stalingrad, credited with sniping 225 German soldiers. He became a folk hero for his bravery at Stalingrad and for killing the German master sniper instructor Major Konings, in an extended sniper/counter-sniper duel; however, the veracity of the Konings story is debated. Zaitsev's exploits and his battle with Konings were the subject of the film Enemy at the Gates and the book "War of the Rats", both fictionalized accounts of sniper warfare in the Battle of Stalingrad. In the film, the German sniper, presumably Konings, is known as "Major König".
  • Lyudmila Pavlichenko was a female Ukrainian sniper with 309 confirmed kills during World War II.
  • Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock of the United States Marine Corps achieved 93 confirmed kills of North Vietnamese soldiers and Viet Cong guerrillas during the Vietnam war. He held the record of longest confirmed kill at a distance of 2,250 meters for 35 years until a Canadian team broke it in 2002. He is the subject of two biographies, Marine Sniper and Silent Warrior.
  • Delta Force snipers Gary Gordon and Randy Shughart were both killed in action during the Battle of Mogadishu. It is estimated that together they shot over 100 Somalis. Both men received the Medal of Honor posthumously for their actions in coming to the aid of a downed helicopter crew. Their actions are also portrayed in the movie Black Hawk Down.

21st century

  • The longest-ever recorded and confirmed sniper kill was made by PPCLI Corporal Rob Furlong of the Canadian Forces in Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda in 2002. Using a .50-caliber (12.7 mm) McMillan TAC-50 rifle, Furlong shot and killed an opposing combatant soldier from a distance of 2,430 metres (1.5 miles).
  • Juba, the name given to an unknown Iraqi Insurgent by US troops has been inflicting damage to the occupying force. According to a report by The Guardian , he may have killed up to a dozen American soldiers by aiming at the head, or at the junctions of the body armor. Videos that capture what appear to have been his attacks have been released by insurgents over the internet. The existence of Juba (sniper) is disputed.

See also

References

Further reading

Footnotes

Military occupations | Sniper warfare

Odstřelovač | Heckenschütze | Tireur d'élite | Tiratore scelto | צלף (ירי) | Sluipschutter | 狙撃手 | Strzelec wyborowy | Atirador | Снайпер | Ostrostrelec | Tarkka-ampuja

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Sniper".

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