article

  • This article is primarily about religious attitudes to sexual morality. For an overview of cultural attitudes to sex, see Sexual norm.
  • More extensive coverage of homosexuality, one of the more controversial areas in this topic, is in the article on Religion and homosexuality.

Introduction

Views on sexual morality have varied greatly over time and from culture to culture. The development of a given society's views on sexual morality can derive from religious beliefs, or social and environmental conditions.

Sexuality and reproduction are common elements in many forms of human interaction and society worldwide. Without sexual activity, most species would die. On the other hand, unrestrained sex has proven in every culture to lead, to at least some degree, to the spread of disease and to disruption of sexual pairings (e.g., sexual jealousy can sometimes provide a motive for domestic violence). Additionally, childbirth--a direct result of sexual activity--is dangerous and often even deadly for both mother and child, even to a degree with modern medicine. Sexual activity is thus surrounded by troubling questions relating to birth, death, and basic social organization and human interaction. Because of these crucial issues, it is perhaps inescapable that most religions and societies have seen a need to address the question of a "proper" role for sexuality in human interaction.

Different religions have different codes of sexual morality which regulate sexual activity or assign normative values to certain sexually-charged actions or thoughts. The views of religions and religious believers range widely, from holding that sex and the flesh are evil and that many forms of sexual expression should be prohibited and punished, to the belief that sex is the highest expression of the divine and should not be regulated by social mores. Even when positions fall somewhere in the middle of these extremes, the issue of sexual morality may not be agreed upon by adherents within a particular sect.

Based on all of these factors, many cultures and religions have adopted strong moral norms sexual behavior, and consider actions outside of the boundaries set by those norms to be immoral or wrong. The normative rules of a culture or religion sometimes distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and in fertile age) and other activities practiced solely (or mainly) for sexual pleasure.

The efficacy of sexual norms often depends on the social position of the group that develops them, on its eventual political representativity, and on its relationships with the laws of the related country.

Since the sexual revolution, western moral debate regarding sexuality has largely become divorced from procreation and other traditional and/or religious priorities because of economic factors and feminism. The strength of the conservative movement in the eighties draws part of its inspiration from the negative reaction to these changes from religious conservatives. In the face of these novel developments, they argue for an end to abortion, birth control, and nonprocreative sex, as well as divorce. In Western pluralistic societies of the 20th and 21st Centuries, there often exists debate on not only whether there is a common morality, but on whether it is right to expect such a common view. In most Western societies, laws allowing a wide range of sexual relationships between consenting adults are the norm, although that legal range varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The debate thus often includes a sub-argument of what is legal versus what is moral.

In previous centuries and in many non-Western cultures of the 20th and 21st Centuries, there has been less room for debate. This does not mean, however, that views on sexual morality have ever been homogeneous.

For example, in Hellenic society, homosexual behavior was often encouraged and accepted as part of the socialization and upbringing of young men, especially those in the military. These relationships were in addition to heterosexual relationships entered into for the establishment of families and the production of progeny so that property would be inherited and kept within a larger kinship group. The importance of the kin-group and the maintenance of its property was such that, under certain circumstances, Athenian law allowed an uncle to marry his niece in order to keep family property together. It could be therefore argued that the needs of the family constituted a higher morality that helped to define the sexual mores of the society as a whole.

In Roman society, sexual morality concentrated more on the social status of those involved, and their taboos concentrated on high-status men committing any kind of sexual act that was thought of as passive or submissive. Providing that the sexual act was dominant in nature, and the man had a high social status Roman society made little distinction between the type of sexual partner and type of sexual act.

In the modern world, opinions differ on how homosexuality should be treated, and there is a full spectrum of reaction exhibited - execution for sexuality alone, execution for sexual acts, imprisonment, gay bashing, hate speech, shunning, segregation (e.g. gay schools), castration, reparative therapy, ex-gay movements, prayer for change, hate crime laws, allowing gay marriage, and full equality.

On the other hand, significant segments of human society on all continents continue to strongly oppose homosexuality, either as a sin, a crime or an illness (note that this is opinion has not been expressed at any given time. in many socities it was accepted or tollerated some giving homosexuality its own social class. the prevalance of opposition to homosexuality may be easily dismissed as an effect of European Christian imperialism) . These objections are often from a religious perspective, and call for punitive consequences for homosexual behavior ranging from social censure and counselling to so-called reparative therapy and even death in certain theocratic societies such as Iran and Saudi Arabia. At the same time, within the past hundred years, societies which had been historically open to love and sexuality between males have been influenced by the west and have become antagonistic towards same-sex love. This development can be seen in many African societies, India, China, Japan, and Papua New Guinea.

Another example is the contrast between traditional European and traditional Asian or African views of permitted familial relationships. British law and custom, for example, frequently forbade intermarriage between those related by marriage. However, thousands of years ago in tribal rural regions of Nepal, and surrounding nations, fraternal polyandry, in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman, was culturally accepted. Likewise, European mores generally advocate monogamy strongly. Polygyny is widely practiced by many societies throughout Asia and Africa, and polyandry is the accepted norm in a few African societies.

Spreading sexual morality to non-adherents

Many cultures attempt to codify their prescriptions concerning individual sexual behaviours. Such codifications are frequently enacted as laws, extending their application beyond the culture to other cultures under the purview of the laws, including dissenters.

Most of the Islamic world has strict rules enforced with sometimes violent punishments to enforce Islamic moral codes, including sexual morality on their citizens, and often attempt to impose it on non-Muslims living within their societies. The same was true of various European Christian regimes at some stages in history, and many contemporary Christians support restrictions on the private expression of sexuality, ranging from relatively uncontroversial prohibitions of prostitution to rather controversial restrictions on oral sex and sodomy. Haredi Jews in Israel use various verbal and print media (newspapers, books, radio shows, websites, etc.) to try to encourage other Jews to follow the Jewish laws of sexuality.

Abrahamic religions and sexual morality

Different-sex sexuality, and specifically procreation, is currently viewed as the ideal by some members of the Abrahamic religions. They sanction monogamous and committed different-sex relationships within marriage. The Old Testament prohibits adultery and different-sex intercourse during menses (Lev.15: 19-24).

Jewish views

In A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, Conservative Rabbi Isaac Klein writes a summation of Jewish views towards sex:

Modern man is heir to two conflicting traditions neither of which is Jewish: On the one hand, the rebirth of the old paganism which found its extreme expression in the sacred prostitutes of Canaan...and on the other hand, the Christian reaction to the excesses of paganism...sex became identified with original sin, and celibacy was regarded as the ideal form of life. Modern man, while opting for pagan libertinism, also suffers a guilty conscience because of his Christian heritage....Judaism is free of both extremes. It rejects the espousal of uncontrolled sexual expression that paganism preaches, and also Christianity's claim that all sexual activity is inherently evil. Jewish marriage is based on a healthy sexual viewpoint that rejects the two extremist principles, and so are the regulations governing the conjugal relations between husband and wife, taharat hamishpacha, the purity of family life.

The Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative Judaism) has published a pastoral letter on human sexuality, "This Is My Beloved, This Is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate Relations". Topics include sex within marriage; having children; infertility; divorce; adultery; incest; single parenthood; non-marital sex; contraception; homosexuality; and the laws of family purity (taharat hamishpacha).

Perhaps the most misunderstood aspect of Jewish law is the laws related to taharat ha'mishpacha (Hebrew: literally "family purity"). These rules inform us that a woman becomes tame (in Israeli Hebrew, pronounced ) or niddah when she is menstruating. During this time a couple must refrain from all physical contact, especially sexual relations. After the cessation of her menstrual flow, the women counts seven days before immersing herself in a mikvah, at which time sexual relations between man and wife can resume. The words tahor and tame are often, but erroneously, translated as physically "clean" and "unclean". However, these terms actually describe a state of ritual applicability in regards to fulfilling biblical commandments, such as those associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, the cultic function of Kohanim (priests), and sexual relations within a Jewish marriage. Modern Jewish authors often translate tahor and tame as "ritually pure" and "ritually impure".

Judaism views homosexuality as a grave sin; in recent years some of the more liberal Jewish denominations have begun reinterpreting this. Judaism distiguishes between a homosexual tendency or desire, and actual behavior, only the latter is a sin. This topic is discussed separately in the entry on Jewish views of homosexuality.

For more details, see Rabbi Michael Gold's Does God Belong in the Bedroom? and Rabbi Shmuley Boteach's Kosher Sex.

The Jewish Scriptures prohibits adultery and it also prohibits intercourse during menses (Lev.15: 19-24). It sanctions and promotes sex within marriage as very holy. In fact it is one of the holiest actions a person can do: it has the potential of uniting the spiritual and the physical with the birth of a child, which is something that nothing else can do.

Within the most holy is also found its opposite, which is why sex can also become the lowest and gravest sin a person can do. Sexual sins are one of the three sins that a Jew is required to let himself be killed rather than performing (the others are idol worship, and murder).

Levels of modesty required according to the Torah and Halakha

There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzeniut) according to Orthodox Judaism as derived from various sources in Halakha ("Jewish law"). The following goes from the less severe to the most extreme prohibitions:

  • A person should not dwell on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
  • Avert one's eyes from staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly at any part of the female anatomy.
  • Keep most of your body clothed in respectable clothing.
  • Do not wear the clothing of a member of the opposite sex.
  • Try not to be naked or unclothed for unnecessary reasons.
  • Avoid looking at pictures or scenes that will be sexually arousing.
  • Do not look at animals or birds copulating.
  • Avoid the company of uncouth individuals and where an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
  • Avoid touching a person of the opposite sex (i.e. by observing negiah), especially in a lingering arousing manner (shaking hands very quickly in greeting between sexes is a point of dispute, and depends on customs).
  • Do not erotically hug (chibuk) or kiss (nishuk) anyone besides your spouse, and then only in private and when the wife is definitely not a Niddah ("menstruant").
  • Masturbation by men (hotza'at zera levatala -- "excreting semen in vain") is not allowed.
  • Yichud is the prohibition of secluding oneself with a stranger.
  • Do not have sex with anyone who is not your spouse.
  • Sex with anyone of the same gender, or with any type of animal, or with a corpse is forbidden.

Christian views

Despite the wide variations between different Christian denominations, which often specifically include different views of sexuality, it is possible to draw a general picture of the underlying views and Biblical doctrines.

The basis of many Christian views comes from the idea that human sexuality was created by God with the twin purposes of procreation and intimacy—bringing a sexually active couple into a close emotional and spiritual relationship through the close physical relationship. As such, it should be restricted to a monogamous, lifelong relationship between a man and a woman: marriage. Marriage is a commitment to a close and lasting relationship and a basis on which to build a stable family. Because of the emphasis on the procreative function of sex, relationships and specific acts that do not lead to conception are frowned upon or expressly forbidden in some denominations.

Though most Christian denominations now accept contraception within marriage, no Christian denomination permitted it before 1930.

According to most Christian teachings, engaging in homosexual acts is considered sinful. There are, however, individual Christian churches and denominations that are open and affirming of homosexuality.

Evangelical and Anglican Churches
In many lutheran, reformed and united churches of the EKD in Germany and in the Netherlands or Switzerland and in the lutheran church of Sweden is today a different, liberal view of homosexuality. In these lutheran, united and reformed churches (Luther/Calvin) gay priests are permitted in ministry and gay couples get a blessing in their churches. Also in some methodist churches (England, Canada, Germany...) gay couples get a blessing in a church.

In the Anglican church is a large discussion over the blessing of gay couples and over tolerance of homosexuality. Anglican (Episcopal) churches in Canada, USA or England permit gay priests in ministry and allow blessings (however Anglican churches in places such as eastern Africa have very conservative views over homosexuality).

There are also some evangelical churches (Southern Baptists, for example) which still condemn homosexuality as a sin and blessings are forbidden.

Catholic and Orthodox Churches

Any sexual activity outside of marriage is heavily limited, because it does not come after a commitment to an intimate relationship, and it does not provide a secure environment for the raising of children. Before marriage, sexual expression should be limited to showing affection and attraction, with the aim of finding a marriage partner. While married, any sexual relationship with someone other than one's spouse is considered adultery and is forbidden. Masturbation is a contentious issue, but is generally and traditionally considered wrong, because of its association with lust.

These deviations from the purpose of sexuality are considered sinful because sex was designed in this way by God. Christians are expected to show self-control in their sexuality, in submission to God and in order to overcome the temptation to follow the strong impulses of human sexuality into sinful acts. Catholic doctrine holds that all sexual acts other than non-contraceptive acts between a validly-married man and wife are sinful, and may be mortal sins if engaged in with full knowledge and consent. The Pauline epistles also promote the value of not marrying (and thus not engaging in sex). This allows a person to commit themselves more fully to God instead of another person; but celibacy is not for everyone, and marriage is not 'second place' but simply the right path for most people.

Muslim views of sex and morality

Islam forbids celibacy as a form of religious practice, and considers the natural state for humans to be married.

Marriage to non-Muslims was initially completely prohibited, but later Qur'anic verses made it legal for Muslim men to marry women from other Abrahamic religions (Jews and Christians). Later scholars extended this to include monotheistic religions as well (such as Zoroastrians). Contemporary scholars have upheld this ruling, but many view inter-faith marriages as unwise (as it leads to many problems such as determination of religion of children, etc), albeit legal.

A Muslim woman, on the other hand, is only allowed to marry a Muslim man, under the assumption that to marry a non-Muslim man would mean that the children would grow up as non-Muslims. Under Islamic law (shari'a), a marriage contract between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man is considered illegal and void, and hence legally an adulterous affair. The same is true for a marriage contract between a Muslim man and a women from a non-Monotheistic faith (such as Hinduism. This is debatable as Hindu beliefs are actually Monistic; however Buddhism is a nontheistic religion)).

Over the past several decades, marriages/divorces between non-Muslim women (mostly Westerners) and Muslim men have been well documented by the media. Particularly famous are custody cases in which Muslim husbands have unlawfully kidnapped their children while fleeing to the nation of their origin, primarily in the Middle East.

All forms of sexual contact outside of a marriage are considered sinful. In particular, adultery warrants severe punishment. Pre-marital sex is also considered a grave sin, but its punishment is less severe. All shari'a laws regulating sexual conduct apply to both men and women equally, apart from those concerning menstruation (see below).

Most forms of sexual contact within a marriage are allowed. Sex is considered a pleasurable and even spiritual activity, and a duty. At least one hadith explicitly states that for a married couple to have sex is a good deed rewarded by God. Another hadith suggests that a man should not leave the proverbial bed until the woman is satisfied; a reference many say points to orgasm.

Forbidden sexual contact includes genital contact with a woman while she is menstruating. In such case, other sexual contact (such as kissing) is explicitly allowed. Anal sex is also generally forbidden; it is explicitly forbidden within the Sunni sect, but some Shi'a scholars hold that it is allowed if consensual. Other forms of sexual contact, such as oral sex, are not explicitly forbidden, and hence widely held to be permissible.

Marriage to close relatives is not permitted, and therefore such relationshiop would be considered incestuous. However, cousins (whether paternal or maternal), are not defined to be "close relatives", and hence are allowed to marry, which is not taboo or uncommon in most Muslim countries.

Milk kinship is considered equivalent to blood kinship, that is, if a mother or wet nurse breast feeds both babies, they are considered siblings, and the above rules apply.

Temporary marriage (Mut'a, marriage designated for a preset period of time) is not allowed by the majority Sunni school, but is allowed by Shia.

Polygyny is allowed in Islam (Up to 4 wives at the same time). Concubines, or slaves kept for the purpose of satisfying their masters sexual urges, have also commonly been a part of Muslim culture, famously associated as members of royal courts - "harems" - of Muslim rulers. However, women are strictly forbidden from practicing polyandry.

There are dissenting views on the topic of masturbation. While some scholars consider it unlawful and thus prohibited according to Islamic doctrine, others (such as those of the Hanbali doctrine) believe that those who masturbate out of fear of committing fornication or fear for their bodies have done nothing wrong and are not punished if (and only if) they are unable to marry.

Divorce is allowed in Islam; while in principle both genders have equal rights to initiate them, in practise men overwhelmingly have the upper hand. In most Muslim-majority nations, such biased attitudes usually allow husbands to secure property, child custody, and other rights away from their former wives after the dissolutions of their marriages. Indeed, in many areas, merely a verbal decree ("triple talaq") from a husband is sufficient in the eyes of their societies to sever his ties to one of his wives.

Homosexuality is forbidden in Islam; anal intercourse between a man and another man is explicitly punishable by death in accordance with the hadith: "Whomever you find doing the deed of the People of Lot, then kill both the doer and whomever he is doing it to." The four Caliphs upheld this ruling, as did all of the Prophet's companions. It is a capital crime in Iran, Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Sudan, and Mauritania. However, in many Muslim societies there have been reports of a wide array of otherwise banned sexual activities in practice. Especially in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia, strict separation between genders may have something to do with widespread homosexual behaviours. In many Pashtun-dominated areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan, for example, relationships between older men and young boys ("halekon") have even been a part of the culture for centuries.

Hindu views of sex and morality

Unlike other religions, views of sexual morality among Hindus differ widely depending on the region and sect. Hindu scriptures themselves are often vague about sexuality. There are temples depicting sexual activity openly (examples include temple complexes at Ajanta and Ellora) and sexual imagery is not altogether sacrilege (for instance, the commonly-known phallic fertility symbol of the Shiv lingam), but strict married life and a good dose of sexual self-restraint (as well as in other aspects of life) are considered essential to a Hindu's well being and dharmic/karmic duties.

Religiously speaking, Hindus begin life at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to celibately advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (religious duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) in the strict context of marriage and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations. To seek physical pleasure before the householder stage would violate the spiritual Hindu's prescribed life path.

In general, however, Hindu society has been influenced by centuries of Islamic subjugation and colonial British influence (Victorian at the time) to reflect their quite conservative attitudes in matters pertaining to sex. Many modern Hindus (especially in large cities within India and/or second-generation immigrant communities in developed countries) have accepted Western notions like pre-marital sex, "love" marriages (compared to the more traditional arranged marriage), and homo-/bisexuality. Among more traditional elements of Hindu society, though, such concepts are still anathema.

Most culturally-sensitive Hindus adhere to sexual standards akin to Victorian morality, with both pre-marital and extra-marital sex perceived to be gravely immoral and shameful. In the religion's teachings, the prohibition against sex outside of marriage is largely related to the prescribed life stages Hindus are bound to follow if they are to attain moksha (the same as the Buddhist concept of nirvana, or enlightenment of the soul).

As influenced by the British and Islam, Indian law (influencing the highest concentration of Hindus) considers all except heterosexual monogamy to be illegal. Additionally, while there are no restictions on particular kinds of sexual activity, it is considered a highly private affair. Most Hindus are extremely averse to openly address anything related to sexuality, as such discussion or publicly romantic displays are viewed as exceptionally distasteful.

The Kama Sutra (Aphorisms of Love) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual congress, offers an insight into sexual mores, ethics and societal rules that were prevalent at that time (ca. 5 CE). Shrungara Ras (Romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions). A drama in Sanskrit, Shakuntalam by Kalidasa, is cited as one of the best examples of Shrungara Ras, talks of the love story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.

Buddhist views of sex and morality

Buddhist teachings are usually disdainful towards sexuality and distrustful of sensual enjoyment and desire. Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity (Japanese Buddhism being a notable exception), and the Buddha is said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity “as if it were a pit of burning cinders."Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics: The Path to Nirvana. (London: Wisdom, 1987), p. 88

A core teaching of Buddha's foundational first sermon is that "one should not pursue sensual pleasure (kama-sukha), which is low, vulgar, coarse, ignoble and unbeneficial." (Samyutta Nikaya V:420, Sutta Pitaka). This is reinforced in many passages of the Sutta Pitaka, such as the Simile of the Quail (Sutta 66 of the Majjhima Nikaya) where Buddha teaches that sensual pleasures are "filthy, coarse, and ignoble" and "should not be pursued, developed, or cultivated; they should be feared." In the Simile of the Snake (Sutta 22 of the Majjhima Nikaya), Buddha strongly rebukes those who say that sexual practice is not an obstacle to Enlightenment: "Misguided man... I have stated and again how sensual pleasures provide little gratification, much suffering, and much despair, and how great is the danger in them. But you, misguided man * injured yourself and stored up much demerit; for this will lead to your harm and suffering for a long time."

In addition, the second of the Four Noble Truths states that the ultimate cause of all suffering is attachment and desire (tanha), and the third states that the way to eliminate suffering is to eliminate attachment and desire. Sexual practices are characterised as both attachment (kama-upadana) and desire (kama-tanha). Sensual desire (kama-cchanda) is also the first of the Five Hindrances, which must be eradicated if one is to progress spiritually. Of the three kinds of cchanda, kama-cchanda is the one that is ethically immoral.ref

Sexual desire is repeatedly described as kilesa, defilement of the mind.

Like other religions, Buddhism takes a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behaviour in particular. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the five precepts: 1 Refraining from harming living beings/practising loving kindness

2. Refraining from taking the non-given/practising generosity

3. Refraining from committing sexual misconduct/practising contentment

4. Refraining from false speech/practising truthful communication

5. Refraining from intoxicants/practising mindfulness. The precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings i.e. they are training principles. Buddhists are to analyse their actions / thoughts in terms of these precepts, rather than subscribe to a divinely derived list of commandments. The third precept, sexual misconduct, has been interpreted differently by different Buddhist traditions. It is usually understood to include adultery, incest, sex with monks or nuns, but may also be interpreted to include anal sex, oral sex, masturbation and homosexuality.

Neo-Pagan views of sex and morality

Neo-Pagan religions are almost unanimous in their acceptance of same-sex relationships as equal to heterosexual ones. Another New Age perspective, however, is that of Eckhart Tolle, author of The Power of Now. Starting with the idea that "the realization that you are 'different' from others may force you to disidentify from socially conditioned patterns of thought and behavior", he claims that being gay can help in the "quest for enlightenment", but only so long as one does not "develop a sense of identity based on... gayness".

Secularist views of sex and morality

Some opponents of homosexual relationships argue regardless of religion that homosexuality undermines traditional family structures and is a psychological construct. Secular disapproval of homosexuality is also associated with the idea that homosexuality is inherently weak, unhealthy or dangerous, and that lesbians and gay men are prone to disease (see 'Homosexuality and medical science' for more information).

Gay rights advocates point out that many heterosexual couples engage in accepted non-reproductive acts and marriages, including those who do not use contraception, practitioners of oral and anal sex, biologically infertile couples, and the elderly. Many homosexual couples also do have children, whether adopted, carried forward from previous relationships, or produced with donor sperm or egg. In the future, new technology may even allow homosexual couples to produce children which carry their genes, without the help of reproductive cell donors. Homosexual sex acts, because they do not contribute to biological fertilization and pregnancy, are often condemned on these grounds. The idea that homosexual couples cannot produce children is also a frequent objection to same-sex marriage.

See also

References

  • James Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980 ISBN 0226067106, paperback Nov. 2005 ISBN 0226067114
  • Mathew Kuefler (editor), The Boswell Thesis : Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005 ISBN 0226457419
  • Eckhart Tolle, The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment, New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004 ISBN 1577314808

Footnotes

External links

Sexuality and religion

Sexualmoral | 性道德

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Religion and sexuality".

Home Page • arts • business • computers • games • health • hospitals • home • kids & teens • news • physicians • recreation• reference • regional • science • shopping • society • sports • world