Rabbinic literature

Rabbinic literature, in the broadest sense, can mean the entire spectrum of Judaism's rabbinic writing/s throughout history. However, the term often used is an exact cognate of the Hebrew term Sifrut Hazal (ספרות חז"ל; "Literature our Sages, ^* blessed memory"), where the latter usually refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era. The latter, more specific, sense is how the term is normally used in medieval and modern rabbinic writing (where Hazal normally refers only to the sages of the Talmudic era), and in contemporary academic writing (where "rabbinic literature" refers to Talmud, Midrash, and related writings, but hardly ever to later texts).

This article discusses rabbinic literature in both senses. It begins with the classic rabbinic literature of the Talmudic era (Sifrut Hazal), and then adds a broad survey of rabbinic writing from later periods.

The term meforshim, or parshanim is also used in modern-day yeshivas (Talmudical academies), denoting the "rabbinical commentaries" of the "commentators".

The oral law

The Mishnah and the Tosefta (compiled from materials pre-dating the year 200) are the earliest extant works of rabbinic literature, explaining Judaism's oral law. Next came the two Talmuds:

The Jerusalem Talmud, c. 450
The Babylonian Talmud, c. 600
The minor tractates (part of the Babylonian Talmud)

The Midrash

Midrash (pl. Midrashim) is a Hebrew word referring to a method of reading details into, or out of, a Biblical text. The term midrash also can refer to a compilation of Midrashic teachings, in the form of legal, exegetical or homiletical commentaries on the Bible.

Later works by category

Jewish law

Halakha is the Jewish way of life. Notable works in this category include:

The major codes of Jewish law (See the Halakha article)
- The Mishneh Torah and its commentaries.
- The Arba'ah Turim and its commentaries.
- The Shulchan Aruch and its commentaries.
The Responsa literature

Jewish thought and ethics

Liturgy

The Siddur and Jewish liturgy
Piyyutim (Classical Jewish poetry)

Later works by historical period

Works of the Geonim

The Geonim are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylon (650 - 1250) :

She'iltoth of Acha'i ^*
Halachoth Gedoloth
Emunoth ve-Deoth (Saadia Gaon)
The Siddur by Amram Gaon
Responsa

Works of the Rishonim (the "early" rabbinical commentators)

The Rishonim are the rabbis of the early medieval period (1000 - 1550)

The commentaries on the Torah, such as those by Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra and Nahmanides.
Commentaries on the Talmud, principally by Rashi, his grandson Samuel ben Meir and Nissim of Gerona.
Talmudic novellae (chiddushim) by Tosafists, Nahmanides, Nissim of Geronda, Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA), Yomtov ben Ashbili (Ritva)
Works of halakha (Asher ben Yechiel, Mordechai ben Hillel)
Codices by Maimonides and Jacob ben Asher, and finally Shulkhan Arukh
Responsa, e.g. by Solomon ben Aderet (RaShBA)
Kabbalistic works (such as the Zohar)
Philosophical works (Maimonides, Gersonides, Nahmanides)
Ethical works (Bahya ibn Paquda, Jonah of Gerona)

Works of the Acharonim (the "later" rabbinical commentators)

The Acharonim are the rabbis from 1550 to the present day.

Important Torah commentaries include Keli Yakar (Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz), Ohr ha-Chayim by Chayim ben-Attar, the commentary of Samson Raphael Hirsch, and the commentary of Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin.
Important works of Talmudic novellae include: Pnei Yehoshua, Hafla'ah, Sha'agath Aryei
Responsa, e.g. by Moses Sofer, Moshe Feinstein
Works of halakha and codices e.g. Mishnah Berurah by Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Aruch ha-Shulchan by Yechiel Michel Epstein
Ethical and philosophical works: Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, Yisrael Meir Kagan and the Mussar Movement
Hasidic works (Kedushath Levi, Sefath Emmeth, Shem mi-Shemuel)
Philosphical/metaphysical works (the works of the Maharal of Prague, Moshe Chaim Luzzatto and Nefesh ha-Chayim by Chaim of Volozhin)
Mystical works
Historical works, e.g. Shem ha-Gedolim by Chaim Joseph David Azulai.

Meforshim

Meforshim is a Hebrew word meaning "(classical rabbinical) commentators" (or roughly meaning "exegetes"), and is used as a substitute for the correct word perushim which means "commentaries". In Judaism this term refers to commentaries by the commentators on the Torah (five books of Moses), Tanakh, the Mishnah, the Talmud, responsa, even the siddur (Jewish prayerbook), and more.

Classic Torah and/or Talmud commentaries have been written by:

Geonim
- Saadia Gaon, 10th century Babylon
Rishonim
- Rashi (Shlomo Yitzchaki), 12th century France
- Abraham ibn Ezra
- Nahmanides (Moshe ben Nahman)
- Samuel ben Meir, the Rashbam, 12th century France
- Rabbi Levi ben Gershom (known as Ralbag or Gersonides)
- David ben Joseph Kimhi, the Radak, 13th century France
- Joseph ben Isaac, the Bekhor Shor, 12th century France
- Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi, the RaN, 14th century Spain
- Isaac ben Judah Abravanel (1437-1508)
- Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno, 16th century Italy
Acharonim
- The Vilna Gaon, Rabbi Eliyahu of Vilna, 18th century Lithuania
- The Malbim, Meir Lob ben Jehiel Michael

Classical Talmudic commentaries were written by Rashi. After Rashi the Tosafos were written, which was an omnibus commentary on the Talmud by the disciplies and descendants of Rashi; this commentary was based on discussions done in the rabbinic academies of Germany and France.

Modern Torah commentaries which have received wide acclaim in the Jewish community include:

Orthodox:
- Ha-Ketav veha-Kabbalah by Rabbi Yaakov Zwi Meckelenburg
- Haemek Davar by Rabbi Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin
- Torah Temimah of Baruch ha-Levi Epstein
- The Torah commentary of Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch
- Sefat Emet (Lips of Truth), Yehudah Aryeh Leib of Ger, 19th century Europe
- The "Pentateuch and Haftaras" by Joseph H. Hertz
- The Soncino Books of the Bible
- Nechama Leibowitz,a noted woman female scholar
- The Chofetz Chaim
Conservative Judaism:
- The five volume JPS Commentary on the Torah by Nahum M. Sarna, Baruch A. Levine, Jacob Milgrom and Jeffrey H. Tigay
- Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary by David L. Lieber, Harold Kushner and Chaim Potok

Modern Siddur commentaries have been written by:

Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan HaCohen, The Chofetz Chaim's Siddur
Samson Raphael Hirsch, The Hirsch Siddur, Feldheim
Abraham Isaac Kook, Olat Reyia
The Authorised Daily Prayer Book with commentary by Joseph H. Hertz
Elie Munk, The World of Prayer, Elie Munk
Nosson Scherman, The Artscroll Siddur, Mesorah Publications
Reuven Hammer, Or Hadash, United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
My Peoples Prayer Book, Jewish Lights Publishing, written by a team of non-Orthodox rabbis and Talmud scholars.

Bibliography

Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, Barry W. Holtz, (Summit Books)
Introduction to Rabbinic Literature Jacob Neusner, (Anchor Bible Reference Library/Doubleday)
Introduction to the Talmud and Midrash, H. L. Strack and G. Stemberger, (Fortress Press)
The Literature of the Sages: Oral Torah, Halakha, Mishna, Tosefta, Talmud, External Tractates, Shemuel Safrai and Peter J. (Tomsan Fortress, 1987)