In mathematics, a plane is a fundamental two-dimensional object. Intuitively, it may be visualized as a flat infinite sheet of paper. There are several definitions of the plane, equivalent in the sense of Euclidean geometry, but which can be extended in different ways to define objects in other areas of mathematics.

In some areas of mathematics, such as plane geometry or 2D computer graphics, the whole space in which the work is carried out is a single plane. In such situations the definite article is used: the plane. Many fundamental tasks in geometry, trigonometry, and graphing are performed in the two dimensional space, or in other words, in the plane.

Euclidean geometry

---

A plane is a surface such that, given any two points on the surface, the surface also contains the straight line that passes through the two of them. One can introduce a Cartesian coordinate system on a given plane in order to label every point on it uniquely with two numbers, the point's coordinates.

Within any Euclidean space, a plane is uniquely determined by any of the following combinations:

• three non-collinear points (not lying on the same line)
• a line and a point not on the line
• two different lines which intersect
• two different lines which are parallel

Planes embedded in R³

---

This section is specifically concerned with planes embedded in three dimensions: specifically, in R³.

Properties

In three-dimensional space, we may exploit the following facts that do not hold in higher dimensions:

• Two planes are either parallel or they intersect in a line.
• A line is either parallel to a plane or they intersect at a single point.
• Two lines normal to the same plane must be parallel to each other.
• Two planes normal to the same line must be parallel to each other.

Point and a normal vector

In a three-dimensional ambient space, there is another important way of defining a plane:

• a point and a line, which is normal (perpendicular) to the plane

We can explicitly describe the resulting plane; let $\backslash vec\; p$ be the point we wish to lie in the plane, and let $\backslash vec\; n$ be a nonzero vector parallel to the line we wish to be normal to the plane. The desired plane is the set of all points $\backslash vec\; r$ such that

$\backslash vec\; n\backslash cdot(\backslash vec\; r-\backslash vec\; p)=0.$

If we write $\backslash vec\; n\; =\; (a,\; b,\; c)$, $\backslash vec\; r\; =\; (x,\; y,\; z)$, and $\backslash vec\; n\backslash cdot\backslash vec\; p=-d$, then the plane is determined by the condition

$ax\; +\; by\; +\; cz\; +\; d\; =\; 0$,

where a, b, c and d could be any real numbers such that not all of a, b, c are zero.

Alternatively, a plane may be described parametrically as the set of all points of the form

$\backslash vec\{u\}\; +\; s\backslash vec\{v\}\; +\; t\backslash vec\{w\},$

where s and t range over all real numbers, and $\backslash vec\{u\}$, $\backslash vec\{v\}$ and $\backslash vec\{w\}$ are given vectors defining the plane. $\backslash vec\{u\}$ points from the orgin to an arbitrary point on the plane, and $\backslash vec\{v\}$ and $\backslash vec\{w\}$ can be visualized as starting at $\backslash vec\{u\}$ and pointing in different directions along the plane. $\backslash vec\{v\}$ and $\backslash vec\{w\}$ can, but do not have to be perpendicular.

Plane through three points

The plane passing through three points $\backslash vec\; p\_1\; =\; (x\_1,y\_1,z\_1)$, $\backslash vec\; p\_2\; =\; (x\_2,y\_2,z\_2)$ and $\backslash vec\; p\_3\; =\; (x\_3,y\_3,z\_3)$ can be determined by the following determinant equations:

$\backslash begin\{vmatrix\}$

x - x_1 & y - y_1 & z - z_1 \\ x_2 - x_1 & y_2 - y_1& z_2 - z_1 \\ x_3 - x_1 & y_3 - y_1 & z_3 - z_1 \end{vmatrix} =\begin{vmatrix} x - x_1 & y - y_1 & z - z_1 \\ x - x_2 & y - y_2 & z - z_2 \\ x - x_3 & y - y_3 & z - z_3 \end{vmatrix} = 0.

This plane can also be described by the "point and a normal vector" prescription above. A suitable normal vector is given by the cross product $\backslash vec\; n\; =\; (\; \backslash vec\; p\_2\; -\; \backslash vec\; p\_1\; )\; \backslash times\; (\; \backslash vec\; p\_3\; -\; \backslash vec\; p\_1\; ),$ and the point $\backslash vec\; p$ can be taken to be $\backslash vec\; p\_1$.

The distance from a point to a plane

For a plane $ax\; +\; by\; +\; cz\; +\; d\; =\; 0$ and a point $\backslash vec\; p\_1\; =\; (x\_1,y\_1,z\_1)$ not necessarily lying on the plane, the distance from $\backslash vec\; p\_1$ to the plane is

$D\; =\; \backslash frac\{\backslash left\; |\; a\; x\_1\; +\; b\; y\_1\; +\; c\; z\_1+d\; \backslash right\; |\}\{\backslash sqrt\{a^2+b^2+c^2\}\}.$

The line of intersection between two planes

Given intersecting planes described by $\backslash vec\; n\_1\backslash cdot\; \backslash vec\; r\; =\; h\_1$ and $\backslash vec\; n\_2\backslash cdot\; \backslash vec\; r\; =\; h\_2$, the line of intersection is perpendicular to both $\backslash vec\; n\_1$ and $\backslash vec\; n\_2$ and thus parallel to $\backslash vec\; n\_1\; \backslash times\; \backslash vec\; n\_2$ .

If we further assume that $\backslash vec\; n\_1$ and $\backslash vec\; n\_2$ are orthonormal then the closest point on the line of intersection to the origin is $\backslash vec\; r\_0\; =\; h\_1\backslash vec\; n\_1\; +\; h\_2\backslash vec\; n\_2$ .

The dihedral angle

Given two intersecting planes described by $a\_1\; x\; +\; b\_1\; y\; +\; c\_1\; z\; +\; d\_1\; =\; 0$ and $a\_2\; x\; +\; b\_2\; y\; +\; c\_2\; z\; +\; d\_2\; =\; 0$, the dihedral angle between them is defined to be the angle $\backslash alpha$ between their normal directions:

$\backslash cos\backslash alpha\; =\; \backslash hat\; n\_1\backslash cdot\; \backslash hat\; n\_2\; =\; \backslash frac\{a\_1\; a\_2\; +\; b\_1\; b\_2\; +\; c\_1\; c\_2\}\{\backslash sqrt\{a\_1^2+b\_1^2+c\_1^2\}\backslash sqrt\{a\_2^2+b\_2^2+c\_2^2\}\}.$

The plane in other areas of mathematics

---

In addition to its familiar geometric structure, with isomorphisms that are isometries with respect to the usual inner product, the plane may be viewed at various other levels of abstraction. Each level of abstraction corresponds to a specific category.

At one extreme, all geometrical and metric concepts may be dropped to leave the topological plane, which may be thought of as an idealised homotopically trivial infinite rubber sheet, which retains a notion of proximity, but has no distances. The topological plane has a concept of a linear path, but no concept of a straight line. The topological plane, or its equivalent the open disc, is the basic topological neighbourhood used to construct surfaces (or 2-manifolds) classified in low-dimensional topology. Isomorphisms of the topological plane are all continuous bijections. The topological plane is the natural context for the branch of graph theory that deals with planar graphs, and results such as the four color theorem.

The plane may also be viewed as an affine space, whose isomorphisms are combinations of translations and non-singular linear maps. From this viewpoint there are no distances, but colinearity and ratios of distances on any line are preserved.

Differential geometry views a plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold, a topological plane which is provided with a differential structure. Again in this case, there is no notion of distance, but there is now a concept of smoothness of maps, for example a differentiable or smooth path (depending on the type of differential structure applied). The isomorphisms in this case are bijections with the chosen degree of differentiability.

In the opposite direction of abstraction, we may apply a compatible field structure to the geometric plane, giving rise to the complex plane and the major area of complex analysis. The complex field has only two isomorphisms, the identity and conjugation.

In the same way as in the real case, the plane may also be viewed as the simplest, one-dimensional (over the complex numbers) complex manifold, sometimes called the complex line. However, this viewpoint contrasts sharply with the case of the plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold. The isomorphisms are all conformal bijections of the complex plane, but the only possibilities are maps that correspond to the composition of a multiplication by a complex number and a translation.

In addition, the Euclidean geometry (which has zero curvature everywhere) is not the only geometry that the plane may have. The plane may be given a spherical geometry by using the stereographic projection. This can be thought of as placing a sphere on the plane (just like a ball on the floor), removing the top point, and projecting the sphere onto the plane from this point). This is one of the projections that may be used in making a flat map of part of the Earth's surface. The resulting geometry has constant positive curvature.

Alternatively, the plane can also be given a metric which gives it constant negative curvature giving the hyperbolic plane. The latter possibility finds an application in the theory of special relativity in the simplified case where there is one dimension of space and one of time.

See also

---

• Half-plane
• Hyperplane
• Line-plane intersection

External links

---

• Mathworld: Plane

Euclidean geometry | Surfaces

Vlak | Равнина (математика) | Pla | Rovina | Plan (matematik) | Ebene (Mathematik) | Tasand | Plano (geometría) | Plan (mathématiques) | Plano | Piano (geometria) | מישור (גאומטריה) | Vlak | 平面 | Flach (Mathematik) | Płaszczyzna | Plano (geometria) | Плоскость (в математике) | Ravnina | Раван | Taso | Plan | 平面