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Masculism (also referred to as "masculinism") is a number of ideologies found in the streams of the men's movement. It consists of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies primarily based on the experiences of men. Although masculism provides a general critique of social relations, many of its proponents also seek to analyze gender inequality and promote men's rights, interests, and issues. Masculism is viewed by its proponents as being an egalitarian view of gender issues, with the focus on men's experience.

History of masculism

The first secular response to feminism came from Ernest Belfort Bax, a socialist theoretician in the height of socialism at the beginning of the 20th century, and an associate of Karl Marx. Bax wrote The Fraud of Feminism in 1913, which was in essence the first masculist text, with chapter titles such as "The Anti-Man Crusade," "Always The 'Injured Innocent'," and "The 'Chivalry' Fake."

In its modern form, masculism has evolved as a response to changing women's roles. The feminist advocacy for professional women led to a similar advocacy for fathers. For example, following the "working woman" T.V. programs of the 1970's (such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show) came numerous "single father" shows (such as Diff'rent Strokes and Silver Spoons), as well as the child-custody themed motion picture Kramer vs. Kramer.

Warren Farrell is probably the most prominent author using the term "masculist" today. Terry Daly is claimed to have been the first to use it in print.

Masculist concerns

Masculists cite one-sided legislation, selective enforcement, and neglected civil rights as examples of discrimination against men (and boys). Other examples include:

Violence

  • men being charged in domestic violence cases even when they are victims
  • men being charged in rape and sexual harassment cases when there is no evidence beyond the plaintiff's complaint
  • men forced to risk their lives in male-only conscripted military service
  • humorous depiction in the media of violence by women against men, particularly castration and striking of testicles, and of prison rape
  • tolerance of girls kicking boys in the testicles, while being more unforgiving to boys assaulting girls ("never hit a girl")
  • male children being more likely to be killed by their parents
  • hate crimes against men
  • portrayal of "violence against women" as more important than other forms of violence
  • the use of systematic rape as punishment in the prison system (see prison rape)
  • disproportionate penalties favoring women who commit genital mutilation and sex crimes

Parenting

  • child custody strongly favoring mothers in most countries; belief that children's growth is fostered more by mothers than fathers
  • children aborted or given up for adoption without fathers' consent or notification
  • pregnancies carried to term despite agreements ahead of time that they would not be, subjecting men to unwanted parental responsibilities and/or child support expectations

In most countries, child custody is assigned to fathers much less often than to mothers. Masculists argue that this should be made equal.

An example of perceived parenting discrimination: According to the Australian Sex Discrimination Commission, equality in child custody should begin with "equal parenting time while the marriage is intact"; and that only when men work part-time should fathers be given the same opportunity as mothers to parent their children after a separation. There seems to be a double standard that caring for children is compatible with mothers, but not fathers, working full-time. It is inconsistent treatment of men and women such as this that many masculists, humanists and fathers' rights groups wish to change.

Discrimination

  • the government and feminist groups believing or teaching that anti-male discrimination is acceptable
  • legislation biased against men (such as WIC and VAWA), using the word women in the law title
  • biases in the justice system against men (i.e. - longer incarceration rates compared with women, for the same crimes, see Karla Homolka and Paul Bernardo)
  • statutory rape laws enforced more vehemently in instances where the victim is female and/or the perpetrator is male, and the romanticization of the inverse relationship in the news and other media (e.g. the cases of Mary Kay Letourneau, Pamela Rogers, Vili Fualaau and Debra Lafave who held press conference after being found guilty of a sex crime. See linksee Double Standard: The Bias Against Male Victims of Sexual Abuse)
  • As Cathy Young articulates, in rape cases, "the dogma that "women never lie" means that there is, for all intents and purposes, no presumption of innocence for the defendant"*
  • earlier age of autonomy for women than men in some countries (In some U.S. states women may legally move out of their parent's home at 17, but men have to wait to be 18. Likewise women may marry at younger ages than men in some U.S. states.)
  • men fired from their jobs for dissenting with feminist ideology in the workplace
  • research and free speech repressed unless pro-feminist

Social concerns

  • lack of advocacy for men's rights; more social programs for women than for men
  • special government agencies for women's affairs with no corresponding agencies for men's affairs
  • culture that conditions males to feel bad about being male (eg. reading about prolific rape)
  • men being incarcerated for the inability to pay unrealistic child support payments
  • legal presumption of paternity based on the word of the child’s mother leaving the burden and costs of disproving a false paternity claim solely on the man
  • men less likely to receive aid from strangers if in trouble (broken down car, harassed, attacked by an animal, etc.)
  • men often chastized about their choice of mates, while women are not (men who consider looks important are "shallow" while women who consider money important are generally accepted. Men are often blamed for not dating taller/richer/stronger/older women, rather than women being blamed for not willing to date shorter/poorer/weaker/younger men)
  • Media depictions of husbands as lazy and selfish, and wives as extraordinarily hard-working and generous, creating the belief that no matter how much a man does for his wife, he is being selfish and uncaring, and that no matter how little the wife does or how selfish she is, she deserves better. This has essentially resulted in men believing that they should become virtual slaves to their wives/girlfriends, and that even after this has happened, the woman should still feel unloved, unappreciated, and oppressed.
  • men reluctant to marry are labeled with ‘fear of commitment’ while women making a similar decision are ‘maintaining their independence’
  • dichotomy of women resenting sexual objectification by men but still using their sexuality to get ahead

Health

  • relative lack of funding for men's health; far more money funded for female causes than for male causes (e.g., prostate cancer vs. breast cancer research)
  • limited choices regarding male contraception
  • circumcision is widespread and acceptable in infant males (predominantly in the USA); whereas female circumcision, known as "female genital mutilation", is often thought of as immoral, and sometimes made illegal (eg. the public act of UK parliament - Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003)

Education

  • lack of educational aid for boys and men, given that their performance/enrollment at most levels lags behind girls'/women's; some states declaring all-male schools illegal and all-female schools legal

There is concern that some university Women's studies departments are more concerned with teaching feminist ideology than equality of gender. The content and emphasis of these courses vary, and some even discuss "masculinities"; but masculists fear that many such courses contribute to animosity towards men.

Some universities also carry "Men's studies" courses. Some feminists argue that these are redundant, stating that academia throughout history was predominantly focused on men; supporters of these courses note that most subjects do not deal with or study gender directly (few people would consider areas where women make up the majority, such as nursing, to be legitimately considered as areas of Women's studies).

Employment

  • High-risk employment, but receiving no special honour for doing so.
  • Harder physical entrance criteria for men in many occupations - such as the army, police and fire service. Masculinists claim that requiring men to be physically stronger than women in these occupations leaves men responsible for a greater share of the physical work, for no more pay.
  • Women hired, promoted, or given raises over more deserving men, because employers fear lawsuits.
  • Sexual Harassment laws which create double-standards, and create a hostile-working environment for men by keeping them on-edge, and limiting their freedom of speech (and even freedom of sight)
  • Other double-standards, such as stricter dress codes for males.
  • legal inequality and protections of paternal vs. maternal leave

Differences in masculist ideology

As with most social movements, there is no consensus as to what exactly constitutes "masculism." Some feel the word describes a belief that the male and female genders should be considered complementary and interdependent by necessity. Such expressions of masculism are built around the belief that differentiated gender roles are natural and should be exempt from government interference. Others masculists, such as Warren Farrell, support an ideology of equivalence between the sexes, rather than a belief in unchangeable gender differences. A more encompassing definition might be "a movement to empower males in society, and to redress discrimination against men."

Because it is the name of a political and social movement, masculism is sometimes considered synonymous with the men's rights or fathers' rights movements. However, many of the fathers' rights movement make a clear distinction between masculism and their own often quite varied approaches to gender relations.

Some masculists state that one of their goals is to overturn the covert matriarchy and elect masculist politicians, whom they would consider more altruistically motivated. Theorists such as David Constantine envision structural changes in taxation or other areas to compensate for what they see as natural differences and expectations between genders.

Gender roles in religion are a source of disagreement among masculists: some support a general leadership role for men, while others argue for relative equality between the genders. Liberal masculists such as Warren Farrell tend to favour a secular, gender-neutral stance, whereas conservatives tend to prefer a religious approach, such as represented in The Inevitability of Patriarchy by Steven Goldberg. Conservatives may promote a "New Patriarchy" by countering feminist ideology with their own. Such liberal-conservative dynamics illustrate the diversity of a movement that nonetheless has a unified purpose of promoting men's welfare.

Conservative views

Conservative masculists tend to believe that profound gender differences are inherent in human nature, contrary to the notion that both genders have the same capacity in virtually every respect. They believe that feminists who have denounced differentiated gender roles as an oppressive artificial construct are conducting a fallacious experiment by attempting to negate these differences via legislation and other means (this view is also held by many non-masculists). Many conservatives believe that feminism has played a role in the high rates of divorce (see marriage strike), alienation of the genders, female chauvinism, love-shyness, disintegrating communities, fatherless children, high school dropout, drug addiction, consumerism, teenage pregnancy, male suicide, violent crime (especially murder), road rage, and overfilled prisons.

Critics of gender equality laws (beginning with the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964) believe they have helped to make feminist ideology mainstream - that such laws serve primarily women and have created significant unconstitutional discrimination against men. While some feminists fight against an "all-powerful patriarchy", conservative masculists tend to consider patriarchy an inevitable result of the biological differences between the sexes. Some disagree that women are powerless victims of patriarchal oppression; they suggest that feminists use this idea to curtail men's rights and to justify their negative views of men. They claim this has achieved a covert matriarchy, aided by chivalry towards women that itself undermines the notion of female oppression.

At the far end are men who assert male power is a divine right, ordained by God, and urge a return to responsible patriarchy.

Liberal views

Liberals tend to view masculism as a complementary movement to feminism, the so-called "New Masculinity." Both feminism and masculism are seen as attempts to correct disadvantages induced by gender roles. Whereas feminists address areas they believe women to be disadvantaged, such as equal pay and promotion, masculists address areas they believe men to be disadvantaged, such as divorce and custody, health and education, criminal prosecution and sentencing. These masculists may object to specific aspects of feminism or to the expressed views of specific feminist groups, but do not reject feminism as a concept, or believe that the feminist movement as a whole is hostile to masculism.

For example, Warren Farrell states in The Myth of Male Power (ISBN 0425181448) that both genders are hampered by the "bisexist" roles of the past: sexism that oppresses both genders. He emphasises the compatibility of both movements: "I use two podiums: Dr. Farrell, Masculist; and Dr. Farrell, Feminist." Fred Hayward, in his speech to the National Congress for Men in 1981, states: "We must not reverse the women's movement; we must accelerate it... [Men's liberation is not a backlash, for there is nothing about traditional sex roles that I want to go back to".

This suggests that masculism in some form can assist and aid the women's movement; feminists have met this with both encouragement and trepidation. Many feminists believe that men are inherently oppressive, some believe that space for women to have a voice would be threatened by the presence of men, or that a growing presence of men in the women's movement would displace the voices of the women. Others greet masculist interests in the women's movement as important for the eradication of sexism in society.

Likewise, gender egalitarians call for both masculists and feminists who are truly interested in equality to unite under the banner of gender egalitarianism. This philosophy is sympathetic to legitimate grievances from both males and females, but does not tolerate prejudice or bigotry from either gender.

Criticisms of masculism

While agreeing they are legitimate concerns, and are in some ways underrepresented in society, some critics of masculism disagree with the approach being taken; they argue that too much criticism is being directed at other groups, namely feminism. For example, while many masculists point out that the majority of murder victims are men, critics point out that they fail to realise or address that the perpetrators are usually male; and that for every single mother with a child that faces social hardships, there is a corresponding father out there somewhere who may be contributing to it. While masculists argue that there is a lack of public funding for male health issues, others point out that insurance companies refuse to fund contraception while funding drugs such as Viagra, and argue that doctors and pharmaceutical companies are willing to meet needs of men if they are sufficiently vocal in expressing a desire for them. An example is the birth control pill being available for men that is specific to their own biology as abortion and female oral contraceptives et al are to theirs; pharmaceutical company rep voiced an unwillingness to spend money and market the pill as "(men fear they'll) lose their virility". Further as masculists express concern of lack of social programs/advocacy groups for men as opposed to women, critics point out that they took initiative, money, risks, and work on the part of women in large groups in order to even get public funding. The groups exist because women took it upon themselves to both create and be vocal in their desire for them and for them to be passed onto the next generation.

What masculists often contend is censorship of points-of-view that don't fall in line with what they perceive as "feminist" and/or "pro-feminist", critics claim is often wide-spread disagreeing and that nothing protects anybody from criticism no matter what their beliefs. Further critics question the validity of the claims and its suggested prevalence and put forth that for individual cases one can find that it isn't specific to any ideology. To masculists who bemoan a tendency to treat alleged rapists as "guilty until proven innocent", critics contend that such views are not specific to alleged rapists and suggest a failure to differentiate between what is the legal view ("innocent until proven guilty") and what is true among citizens.

Critics of masculism interpret what masculists term male powerlessness as loss of male power or failure stay a perceived rigid course required to achieve as much. Critics hold these are consequences of male power that has always required men to equate masculinity with machismo, and male-male competition and control based on class in order to maintain male-power. Though masculists may argue that the likelihood of a stranger to assist a woman, but not a man, in trouble is a reflection of less importance placed on men, others attribute it to behavioural notions reinforced from birth, such as the presumption of men as ideally self-sufficient. For instance, a boy that had fallen and injured himself—unlike a girl—may be encouraged to recover by himself, and praised for doing so. Likewise, the male proclivity towards high-risk jobs among men compared to women may be consequences of a machismo attitude that is often equated with masculinity, possibly perpetuated by men themselves. Men generally outnumber women in risky and dangerous occupations such as the police, fire service and army, but in most cases it is the men themselves who voluntarily choose to enter these occupations. The higher rate of successful suicide may stem from attitudes that discourage men from discussing problems that would otherwise see them getting the help they need, and in general lack of social solidarity which sociological studies (e.g., those of Emile Durkheim) have suggested was long true among groups with the highest rate of suicide. Critics also challenge the view that men are given longer sentences for the same crime and point out that in individual cases where a judge gives a woman a lesser sentence, it often reflects sexist stereotypes such as "she was manipulated into it," or "she is a soft touch". Critics further point to similar reasons for male victims of statutory rape taken less serious and female perpetrators treated with more leniency (and point out the judges that sentence the women are usually male). They suggest this as a consequence of viewing males as innately more “sexual” and of conditioning boys to want and/or require sex to be “manly”, whereas females are viewed as less to non-sexual and agents of socialization are restrictive to female sexuality/sexual activity/sexual desire. To critics the result is treating the female perpetrator as pathological, and not responsible, and not as much “damage” done to the young male victim. Critics hold that these are a reflection of a broad societal problem that directly favors men who fall in line with what is required but that, like everything, has its consequences.

Critics suggest that the ability to eradicate many disadvantages lies within men. These critics believe only men can take the reins in their own masculinity, as for example women unhappy with their own situation have taken with femininity over the years, or ethnic-minority groups have. For these critics, men themselves should be the focus of change: they should fundamentally reevaluate how male gender roles are defined and conserved in society and pursue meaningful change through means over which they only, being males, have control. The idea is that in essence, the problems identified by masculists often originate in a lack of accountability and initiative on the part of men themselves and/or a desire of males who identify the problems to want it what is perceived as "both ways".

See also

Men's movements

People

Bibliography

  • Politics of Aristotle asserts excellence varies with social role, including gender.
  • A Vindication of the Rights of Woman by Mary Wollstonecraft, 1792.
  • On Liberty by John Stuart Mill, 1859.
  • The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill, 1869.
  • The Legal Subjection of Men by Ernest Belfort Bax, 1908.
  • The Fraud of Feminism by Ernest Belfort Bax, 1914.
  • The Myth of the Monstrous Male and Other Feminist Fallacies; John Gordon, Playboy Press, New York, 1982; ISBN 0-87223-758-3
  • The Myth of Male Power: Why Men Are the Disposable Sex; Warren Farrell, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1993: ISBN 0-671-79349-7
  • Manliness by Harvey Mansfield (2006) Yale Press * ISBN 0300106645
  • Not Guilty: The Case in Defense of Men; David Thomas, William Morrow and Co., Inc., New York, 1993; ISBN 0-688-11024-X
  • Good Will Toward Men; Jack Kammer, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994; ISBN 0-312-10471-5
  • Moral Panic: Biopolitics Rising; John Fekete, Robert Davies Publishing, Montreal-Toronto, 1994: ISBN 1-895854-09-1
  • The New Men's Studies: A Selected and Annotated Interdisciplinary Bibliography (2nd Edition); Eugene R. August, Libraries Unlimited, Inc., Englewood, CO, 1994: ISBN 1-56308-084-2
  • A Man's World: How Real Is Male Privilege - And How High Is Its Price?; Ellis Cose, Harper Collins, New York, 1995: ISBN 0-06-017206-1
  • Why Men Don't Iron: The Real Science of Gender Studies; Anne & Bill Moir, Harper Collins, Hammersmith, London, 1998; ISBN 0-00-257035-1 (Trade Paperback); ISBN 0-00-257048-3 (Hardcover)
  • The Church Impotent: The Feminization of Christianity; Leon J. Podles, Spence Publishing Co., Dallas, TX, 1999. (The title is a play on the Catholic theological terms church militant and church triumphant.)
  • Spreading Misandry: The Teaching of Contempt for Men in Popular Culture; Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal, 2001; ISBN 0-7735-2272-7

  • Sex Differences, Modern Biology and the Unisex Fallacy, Yves Christen
  • Who Stole Feminism?: How Women Have Betrayed Women; Christina Hoff Sommers ISBN 0684801566
  • The War Against Boys: How Misguided Feminism Is Harming Our Young Men; Christina Hoff Sommers ISBN 0684849569
  • If Men Have All the Power How Come Women Make the Rules?; Jack Kammer *
  • Domestic Violence: The 12 Things You Aren't Supposed to Know by Thomas B. James ISBN 1593301227
  • Ceasefire! : Why Women And Men Must Join Forces To Achieve True Equality; Cathy Young ISBN 0684834421
  • The Masculine Mystique; Andrew Kimbrell ISBN 0345386582

External links

Masculist Links

Footnotes

Gender | Men's movement | Issues in the culture wars

Maskulismus | Masculinisme | Maschilismo | Mannenbeweging | Maskulismi | Maskülizm

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Masculism".

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