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Jihad, sometimes spelled Jahad, Jehad Jihaad or Djehad, ( ') is an Islamic term, from the Arabic root ' ("to exert utmost effort, to strive, struggle"), which connotes a wide range of meanings: anything from an inward spiritual struggle to attain perfect faith to a political or military struggle to further the Islamic cause. Individuals involved in the political or military forms of jihad are often labeled with the neologism "jihadist".

The term "jihad" is often rendered in western languages and non-Islamic cultures as "holy war", but this "physical" struggle, which encompasses religon, only makes up part of the broader meaning of the concept of jihad. The denotation is of a struggle, challenge, difficulty, or (frequently) opposed effort, made either in accomplishment or as resistance. A person who engages in any form of jihad can be called a mujahid (in plural: mujahadin) (Arabic: striver, struggler), a term even more often applied to groups who practice armed struggle in the name of Islam. Such a person might engage in fighting as a military struggle for religious reasons, or for example, struggle to memorize the Qur'an.

Classifications of Jihad by Muslims

Jihad has been classified either as al-jihād al-akbar (the greater jihad), the struggle against one's soul (nafs), or al-jihād al-asgar (the lesser jihad), the external, physical effort, often implying fighting.

Muslim scholars explained there are five kinds of jihad fi sabilillah (struggle in the cause of God) *:

  • Jihad of the heart/soul (jihad bin nafs/qalb) is an inner struggle of good against evil in the mind, through concepts such as tawhid.
  • Jihad by the tongue (jihad bil lisan) is a struggle of good against evil waged by writing and speech, such as in the form of dawah (proselytizing), Khutbas (sermons), and political or military propaganda.
  • Jihad by the pen and knowledge (jihad bil qalam/ilm) is a struggle for good against evil through scholarly study of Islam, ijtihad (legal reasoning), and through sciences (such as military and medical sciences).
  • Jihad by the hand (jihad bil yad) refers to a struggle of good against evil waged by actions or with one's wealth, such as going on the Hajj pilgrimage (seen as the best jihad for women), taking care of elderly parents, providing funding for jihad, political activity for furthering the cause of Islam, stopping evil by force, or espionage.
  • Jihad by the sword (jihad bis saif) refers to qital fi sabilillah (armed fighting in the way of God, or holy war).

Ibn Rushd, in his Muqaddimāt, divides Jihad into four kinds:

"Jihad by the heart; Jihad by the tongue; Jihad by the hand and Jihad by the sword." He defines "Jihad by the tongue" as "to commend good conduct and forbid the wrong, like the type of Jihad Allah (swt) ordered us to fulfill against the hypocrites in His Words, “O Prophet! Strive hard against the unbelievers and the hypocrites” (Qur'an ). So the Prophet (s) strove against the unbelievers by sword and against the hypocrites by tongue*

Ibn al-Qayyim says:

Jihad is of four kinds: jihad an-nafs (jihad against one’s self), jihad ash-Shaytan (jihad against Satan), jihad against the kuffar and jihad against the hypocrites.
1. Jihad an-nafs (jihad against one’s self) is of four kinds:
a. Striving to learn the teachings of Islam b. Striving to make oneself act in accordance with what one has learned.c. Striving to call others to Islam, teaching those who do not know about it. d. Striving to bear patiently the difficulties involved in calling people to Allah and the insults of people, bearing all that for the sake of Allah. If a person achieves all four of these levels, then he will be one of the rabbaniyyin -- learned men of religion who practice what they know and also preach to others. (see ). The salaf (righteous predecesors) were agreed that the scholar does not deserve to be called a rabbani unless he knows the truth, acts in accordance with it, and teaches it to others. Whoever teaches, acts in accordance with his knowledge, and has knowledge will be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
2.Jihad ash-Shaytan (jihad against Satan) is of two types:a. Warding off the doubts that Satan stirs up to undermine faith. b. Striving against Satan to ward off the corrupt desires that he provokes. The first jihad is followed by certainty of faith, and the second is followed by patience. Allah says: “And We made from among them of Israel, leaders, giving guidance under Our Command, when they were patient and used to believe with certainty in Our Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.)” (). Allah tells us that leadership in religion is attained through patience and certainty of faith. Patience wards off desires and certainty wards off doubts.
3. Jihad against the munafiqin (hypocrites) and kuffar (disbelievers) is of four kinds: with the heart, the tongue, one’s wealth and oneself. Jihad against the disbelievers is more along the lines of physical fighting, whereas jihad against the hypocrites is more along the lines of using words and ideas.

Ibn Baz says:

Jihad is of various kinds, with one’s self, one's wealth, by making dua, by teaching and guiding, by helping to do good in any way. The greatest form of jihad is jihad with one’s self (i.e., going oneself and fighting), followed by jihad with one's wealth, jihad by speaking out and guiding others. Dawah is also part of jihad. But going out oneself to fight in jihad is the highest form. (Fatawa ash-Sheikh Ibn Baz, 7/334, 335) *

Nawawi in his book al-Minhaj, when defining Jihad and its different categories, said,

"one of the collective duties of the community as a whole (fard kifaya) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct". " *

Ramadan Buti, a contemporary Orthodox scholar from Syria, in his work on the subject Jihad in Islam says

Even before Muhammad conducted Jihad by sword against the unbelievers, there is no doubt the Prophet (s) invited these unbelievers peacefully, lodged protests against their beliefs and strove to remove their misgivings about Islam. When they refused any other solution, but rather declared a war against him and his message and initiated the fight, there was no alternative except to fight back" *

Imam al-Dardir in his book Aqarab al-Masalik says

Jihad is propagating the knowledge of the Divine Law commending right and forbidding wrong. He emphasized that it is not permitted to skip this category of Jihad and implement the combative form, saying, "the first duty is to call people to enter the fold of Islam, even if they had been preached to by the Prophet (s) beforehand." [http://www.sunnah.org/fiqh/jihad_judicial_ruling.htm

Al-Hajj Talib 'Abdur-Rashid, imam of the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood in Harlem, NY, defines three levels of jihad -- personal, verbal and physical. Considering each in turn:

Personal Jihad: This is the most important form. This type of jihad, called the Jihadun-Nafs, is the intimate struggle to purify one's soul of evil influences -- both subtle and overt. It is the struggle to cleanse one's spirit of sin. Putting "Allah ahead of our loved ones, our wealth, our worldly ambitions and our own lives." Resisting pressure of parents, peers and society; strive against "the rejecters of faith..." (Qur'an ) "...strive and struggle to live as true Muslims..." "Striving for righteous deeds."Spreading the message of Islam. "The (true) believers are only those who believe in Allah and his messenger and afterward doubt not, but strive with their wealth and their selves for the cause of Allah. Such are the truthful." ()

Verbal Jihad: To strive for justice through words and non-violent actions. Muhammad encouraged Muslims to demand justice in the name of Allah. When asked: "'What kind of jihad is better?' Muhammad replied, 'A word of truth in front of an oppressive ruler(Nisai). According to M. Amir Ali, Jihad explained''
The life of the Prophet Muhammad was full of striving to gain the freedom to inform and convey the message of Islam. During his stay in Makkah he used non-violent methods and after the establishment of his government in Madinah [Medina, by the permission of Allah, he used armed struggle against his enemies whenever he found it inevitable.

Physical Jihad: This relates to the use of physical force in defense of Muslims against oppression and transgression by the enemies of Allah, Islam and Muslims. Allah commands that Muslims lead peaceful lives and not transgress against anyone. If they are persecuted and oppressed, the Qur'an recommends that they migrate to a more peaceful and tolerant land: "Lo! Those who believe, and those who emigrate (to escape persecution) and strive (Jahadu) in the way of Allah, these have hope of Allah's mercy..." (). If relocation is not possible, then Allah also requires Muslims to defend themselves against oppression by "fighting against those who fight against us." 2 The Qur'an states: "To those against whom war is made, permission is given defend themselves, because they are wronged - and verily, Allah is Most Powerful to give them victory." () *

Imam Bahouti commences the chapter on Jihad in his book Kashf al-Kinaa by showing the injunctions of collective religious duties (kifaya) that the Muslim Nation must achieve before embarking on combative Jihad, including preaching and education about the religion of Islam, dismissing all the uncertainties about this religion and making available all the skills and qualifications which people might need in their religious, secular, physical and financial interests because these constitute the regulations of both this life and the life to come. *

General theological issues

Greater and lesser jihad

Most Muslims believe that the non-violent jihad is the "greater jihad" and the violent jihad is the "lesser jihad." The Sufis are particularly known for supporting this tradition, though some Sufis prefer to use the Arabic word mujahada instead of "greater jihad." The belief that non-violent jihad is the greater jihad has its origins in a number of hadeeth. In the most quoted pair on this issue, Muhammed is reported to have told warriors returning home that they had returned from the lesser jihad of struggle against unbelievers to a greater jihad of struggle against lust.

The validity of those hadeeth is in dispute - other hadeeth indicate that violent jihad is the greater of the two, and Islamic scholar and alleged founder of Salafi thought, Ibn Taymiyya, famously criticized some of the non-violent hadeeth and went so far as to say that "Jihad against the disbelievers is the most noble of actions, and moreover it is the most important action for the sake of mankind." *.

However, Ibn Taymiyya also made statements supporting the concept of internal struggle as the greater jihad. Near the end of Rawdat al-Muhibbin, Ibn al-Qayyim quotes Taymiyya as follows: "I heard our Shaykh say, 'The jihad of "nafs" (the inner self) and "hawa" (desires) is the foundation of jihad of the disbelievers and hypocrites; one cannot do jihad of them before he first does jihad of his nafs and hawa, then he goes out and fights them.'" Ibn al-Qayyim too writes about the jihad of the ego as the "prime" (al-muqaddam) and "most obligatory" (al-afraD) jihad in al-Fawa'id, Zad al-Ma`ad, al-Ruh, Ighathat al-Lahfan e.t.c. Similarly, Sunni scholars consider a number of hadeeth supporting non-violent jihad to be authentic [http://www.sunnipath.com/Resources/Questions/QA00000797.aspx. So although there seems to be a controversy about the authenticity of hadeeth, Muslims agree that the struggle for purification of self (Jihad bin nafs) is extremely important.

Eschatology

Islamic canonical literature exalts jihad as the greatest deed. The Qur'an exalts "those who strive and fight in the cause of Allah with their goods and persons" above "those who sit and receive no hurt," 4:95. According to various canonical ahadeeth, in afterlife, no deed equals jihad in reward, though others favor taking care of parents, or speaking against tyrants.

Many verses in the Qur'an can be read as supporting violent warfare against unbelievers; notably: "Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers, for that they joined companions with Allah, for which He had sent no authority: their abode will be the Fire: And evil is the home of the wrong-doers!" (Qur'an 3:151)* "How many a township have We destroyed! As a raid by night, or while they slept at noon, Our terror came unto them. No plea had they, when Our terror came unto them, save that they said: Lo! We were wrong-doers." (Qur'an 7:4-5)* "Remember thy Lord inspired the angels (with the message): 'I am with you: give firmness to the Believers: I will instil terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers: smite ye above their necks and smite all their finger-tips off them.'" (Qur'an 8:12)* "Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies, and others besides, whom ye may not know, but whom Allah doth know. Whatever ye shall spend in the cause of Allah, shall be repaid unto you, and ye shall not be treated unjustly." (Qur'an 8:60)* "Lo! those who disbelieve spend their wealth in order that they may debar (men) from the way of Allah. They will spend it, then it will become an anguish for them, then they will be conquered. And those who disbelieve will be gathered unto hell,"(Qur'an 8:36)* "But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, an seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful."(Qur'an 9:5)* "Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued." (Qur'an 9:29)* "And the Jews say: Ezra is the son of Allah, and the Christians say: The Messiah is the son of Allah. That is their saying with their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved of old. Allah (Himself) fighteth against them. How perverse are they!" (Qur'an 9:30)* "And the True Promise draweth nigh; then behold them, staring wide (in terror), the eyes of those who disbelieve! (They say): Alas for us! We (lived) in forgetfulness of this. Ah, but we were wrong-doers!" (Qur'an 21:97) * "He it is Who hath sent His messenger with the guidance and the religion of truth, that He may make it conqueror of all religion however much idolaters may be averse."(Qur'an 61:9) * "On the Day when (some) faces will be whitened and (some) faces will be blackened; and as for those whose faces have been blackened, it will be said unto them: Disbelieved ye after your (profession of) belief ? Then taste the punishment for that ye disbelieved."(Qur'an 3:106)* "Lo! Those who disbelieve Our revelations, We shall expose them to the Fire. As often as their skins are consumed We shall exchange them for fresh skins that they may taste the torment. Lo! Allah is ever Mighty, Wise." (Qur'an 4:56) * "And fight them until persecution is no more, and religion is all for Allah. But if they cease, then lo! Allah is Seer of what they do." (Qur'an 8:39) * "O Prophet! Exhort the believers to fight. If there be of you twenty steadfast they shall overcome two hundred, and if there be of you a hundred (steadfast) they shall overcome a thousand of those who disbelieve, because they (the disbelievers) are a folk without intelligence." (Qur'an 8:65)* "Lo! those who disbelieve, among the People of the Scripture and the idolaters, will abide in fire of hell. They are the worst of created beings."(Qur'an 98:6)* "Say: (It is) the truth from the Lord of you (all). Then whosoever will, let him believe, and whosoever will, let him disbelieve. Lo! We have prepared for disbelievers Fire. Its tent encloseth them. If they ask for showers, they will be showered with water like to molten lead which burneth the faces. Calamitous the drink and ill the resting-place!" (Qur'an 18:29)* "These twain (the believers and the disbelievers) are two opponents who contend concerning their Lord. But as for those who disbelieve, garments of fire will be cut out for them; boiling fluid will be poured down on their heads,Whereby that which is in their bellies, and their skins too, will be melted;And for them are hooked rods of iron.Whenever, in their anguish, they would go forth from thence they are driven back therein and (it is said unto them): Taste the doom of burning." (Qur'an 22:19-22)*

Historical Muslim views on Jihad

The first starting points on Jihad can be found in the Qur'an and Hadith. The Hadith offers more context than the Qu'ran. One of the Books of the Hadieth of Bukhari has a chapter titled "Striving for the cause of Allah (Jihaad)"

It is important to note that there are several sects within Islam and many differing schools of thought (see Madhhabs). These schools may differ in their interpretations of basic Islamic precepts, Jihad being one of them. The opinions of scholars such as Ibn Taymiya are not followed or even recognized by most Muslims, though his opinions are held in high esteem amongst many who consider themselves followers of the Salafi sect.

According to Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani a 10th century Maliki jurist:

Jihad is a precept of Divine institution. Its performance by certain individuals may dispense others from it. We Malikis maintain that it is preferable not to begin hostilities with the enemy before having invited the latter to embrace the religion of Allah except where the enemy attacks first. They have the alternative of either converting to Islam or paying the poll tax (jizya), short of which war will be declared against them.

According to al-Mawardi an 11th Century Shafi'i jurist

The mushrikun * of Dar al-Harb (the arena of battle) are of two types: First, those whom the call of Islam has reached, but they have refused it and have taken up arms. The amir of the army has the option of fighting them…in accordance with what he judges to be in the best interest of the Muslims and most harmful to the mushrikun… Second, those whom the invitation to Islam has not reached, although such persons are few nowadays since Allah has made manifest the call of his Messenger…it is forbidden to…begin an attack before explaining the invitation to Islam to them, informing them of the miracles of the Prophet and making plain the proofs so as to encourage acceptance on their part; if they still refuse to accept after this, war is waged against them and they are treated as those whom the call has reached…

Ibn Taymiyya , a 14th Century Hanbali jurist15

Since lawful warfare is essentially jihad and since its aim is that the religion is God's entirely and God's word is uppermost, therefore according to all Muslims, those who stand in the way of this aim must be fought. As for those who cannot offer resistance or cannot fight, such as women, children, monks, old people, the blind, handicapped and their likes, they shall not be killed unless they actually fight with words (e.g. by propaganda) and acts (e.g. by spying or otherwise assisting in the warfare).

In the Hidayah, vol. II. p. 140 (Hanafi school)

It is not lawful to make war upon any people who have never before been called to the faith, without previously requiring them to embrace it, because the Prophet so instructed his commanders, directing them to call the infidels to the faith, and also because the people will hence perceive that they are attacked for the sake of religion, and not for the sake of taking their property, or making slaves of their children, and on this consideration it is possible that they may be induced to agree to the call, in order to save themselves from the troubles of war… If the infidels, upon receiving the call, neither consent to it nor agree to pay capitation tax, it is then incumbent on the Muslims to call upon God for assistance, and to make war upon them, because God is the assistant of those who serve Him, and the destroyer of His enemies, the infidels, and it is necessary to implore His aid upon every occasion; the Prophet, moreover, commands us so to do."

Ibn Khaldun, the 15th century Tunisian historian, states

In the Muslim community, the holy war is a religious duty, because of the universalism of the Muslim mission and the obligation to convert everybody to Islam either by persuasion or by force... The other religious groups did not have a universal mission, and the holy war was not a religious duty for them, save only for purposes of defense... Islam is under obligation to gain power over other nations.

Jihad as warfare

The word "jihad" is widely understood to refer to "holy war." When the 'struggle' of jihad refers to a military action or expedition, Islamic textual sources expounds an elaborate military doctrines and moral policies which lay down the basic rules of war in Islam as well as a political ideology.

Muslim theologians divide the world into two parts. The Dar al-Islam (land of Islam), includes all lands where Muslims could expect to be treated fairly, and have their religious practices and traditions respected by the governing system (these include nations under Islamic government or governments that are Muslim-run, and nations run by non-Muslims that treat Muslims with equality). The other part, called Dar al-Harb (land of war), includes those territories where Muslims are in any way barred from free exercise of their religion. *

The concept of warfare in Islam is of two distinct types: defensive jihad, which is defense of the Dar al-Islam, and offensive jihad which is the military conquests of the Dar al-Harb. Muslims differ greatly in their understanding of what justifies declarations of either forms of warfare, and many believe that 'offensive jihad' was a necessity in the environment of feudal times, and is generally not reasonable in the modern age. However the two most popular movements in the modern Islamic world, Ikwan ul Muslemeen (in Egypt and also other mostly Arab Muslim countries) and Jamaat e Islami (Pakistan & Indian Sub-continent), have always advocated extreme form of militancy under the pretext of Jihad.

History records instances of the "call for jihad" being invoked by Islamic leaders to 'legitimate' wars of conquest. The major imperial Muslim dynasties of Ottoman Turkey (Sunni) and Persia (Shia), each established systems of authority around traditional Islamic institutions. Part of this incorporation involved various interpretations of jihad. For example, in the Ottoman empire the concept of ghaza was promulgated as a sister obligation to jihad. The Ottoman ruler Mehmed II is said to have insisted on the conquest of Constantinople by justifying ghaza as a basic duty. Later Ottoman rulers would apply ghaza to justify military campaigns against the Perian Safavid dynasty. Thus both rival empires established a tradition that a ruler was only considered truly in charge when his armies has been sent into the field in the name of the true faith, usually against giaurs or heretics -often meaning each other-, often invoking some Sufi or other theological dispute, but rather driven by the universal craving for power, prestige, and if possible booty or territory.. The 'missionary' vocation of the Muslim dynasties was prestigious enough to be formally reflected in a formal title as part of a full ruler style- the Ottoman (many also had Ghazi as part of their name) Sultan Murad Khan II Khoja-Ghazi, 6th Sovereign of the House of Osman (1421 - 1451), literally used Sultan ul-Mujahidin The so-called Fulbe jihad states and a few other jihad states in western Africa were established by a series of offensive wars.

The commands inculcated in the Koran (in five suras from the period after Mahomet had established his power) on Muslims to put to the sword those who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (jizya) were not interpreted as a general injunction on all Moslems constantly to make war on the infidels. It was generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the Caliph (an office that was claimed by the Ottoman sultans), but Mahommedans who did not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate (which is vacant), such as non-Sunnites and non-Ottoman Muslim states, always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Moslems on unbelievers since the early caliphate. Jihad was generally proclaimed by whoever claimed to be a mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese Mahommed Ahmad in 1882.

Non-Muslim opinions

The United States Department of Justice has used its own ad hoc definitions of jihad in indictments of individuals involved in terrorist activities:
  • "As used in this First Superseding Indictment, 'Jihad' is the Arabic word meaning 'holy war'. In this context, jihad refers to the use of violence, including paramilitary action against persons, property or governments deemed to be enemies of a fundamentalist version of Islam."*
  • "As used in this Superseding Indictment, 'violent jihad' or 'jihad' include planning, preparing for, and engaging in, acts of physical violence, including murder, maiming, kidnapping, and hostage-taking."* in the indictment against several individuals including Jose Padilla.

Karen Armstrong in her book a Biography of the Prophet (book), writes:

"Fighting and warfare might sometimes be necessary, but it was only a minor part of the whole jihad or struggle*

The noted specialist of Islam, Maxime Rodinson, wrote that "Jihad is a propagandistic device which, as need be, resorts to armed struggle – two ingredients common to many ideological movements." (Maxime Rodinson. Muhammad. Random House, Inc., New York, 2002. p. 351.)

The neologism jihadist is sometimes used to describe militant Islamic groups, including but not restricted to Islamist terrorism (see for example Jihadist organizations). The term is deemed offensive by many Muslims who see it as vilifying the more complex ideology of jihad.

The Islamic religious legitimacy of the goals or methods of various Islamist movements who adopt the terminology of jihad is often brought into question by other Muslims.

Other uses

Jihad is also given as a first name, e.g. Jihad Ballout and Jihad Ahmed Jibril; or used in a nick-name, e.g. Abu Jihad

Even unrelated to Islam, the word has been used in names, e.g. the Australian hardcore punk band Jihad Against America

The collectible card game The Eternal Struggle was originally named 'Jyhad' (note the different spelling) after a non-Islamic concept of the roleplaying game it is set in.

References

See also

Political and military aspects

Similar concepts in other religions and in secularism

Philosophers of Jihad doctrine

Critics of Jihad

Sources and External links

Encyclopedic and various non-specialized sites

Islamic sites discussing Jihad

Non islamic sites discussing Jihad

Islam | Arabic words

جهاد | Jihad | Jihad | Dschihad | Yihad | Ĝihado | جهاد | Jihad | Jihad | Jihad | Jihad | ג'יהאד | Cîhad | Džihāds | Jihad | ジハード | Jihad | Dżihad | Jihad | Jihad | Джихад | Džihad | Jihad | Jihad | Cihad | 圣战

 

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