Origins of Hinduism

Kailash_Tibet.jpg in Tibet is regarded as the spiritual center of the world.]] The roots of Hinduism date from around 3000–1000 BCE. The earliest evidence for elements of the Hindu faith dates back as far as 3000 BCE, though the beliefs and practices of pre-classical era (2000-1000 BCE) are more accurately termed, "Vedism.""Hindu History" Fully-formed Hinduism did not emerge until these Vedic traditions interacted with the shramanical movements of Buddhism and JainismWebster's New World Dictionary just as Judaism did not emerge in a defined form until the split with Christianity. The synthesis of Vedic ritual and pantheon with the non-violent and gnostic traditions of the shramanas yielded the complex we know today as "Hinduism."

From the perspective of a believing Hindu, however, the propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. According to s, Lord '’s spoke the Bhagavad-Gita on the battlefield of Kurukshetra in 3102 B.C.; just prior to the commencement of the Mahabharata war."Year of Bhagavad-Gita (acc. to Puranas)" '’s incarnation was preceded by Lord ’s, sometimes dated at over 5–6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the according to the Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord , the seventh incarnation of Lord . Modern Indology dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on linguistic and literary data from the Rig Veda, believed to be composed around a similar period, though it is accepted that they were transmitted orally from at least 1800-1500 BCE. These dates are based on the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis, which posits an influx of Sanskrit-speaking Indo-Aryan peoples and or culture into North India in the early 2nd millennium BCE.

The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called s, over a long period of time. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Dharma, meaning, a noble religion. Many times Hindus (e.g. Arya Samaj) call Hinduism itself as the Arya Dharma. More specifically Hinduism is the "Sanatan Arya Dharma."

Vedic religion

Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the centers on worship of celestial spirits such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform fire-sacrifices, called (यज्ञ), with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger , as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several centuries, if not several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta (of Zoroastrianism), as well as more distantly to other Indo-European languages and religions (see Indo-Aryan migration). The deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter)—the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Ziu in Germanic mythology^*. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.

Temples

Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) are viewed as the four highest Patriarchs of the Hindudom. Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the Divine), , meditation, and religious congregation — among other religious activities. or worship, frequently uses the aid of a icons and mantras (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), (devotional songs), and are sometimes sung in conjunction with the performance of the . This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion.

Current geographic distribution

Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. ^*" target="_blank" >"Largest gathering on Earth" Around 70 million people from around the world participated in Kumbh Mela at one of the Hindu Holy city Prayaga (also known as Allahabad) (India).] Of the total Hindu population of the world, approx. 900 million of them live in India. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in Bali, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Fiji, Guyana, Nepal, Mauritius, Suriname, Singapore and Trinidad and Tobago. In Nepal and Bali, Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in Sri Lanka (1.42 million)CIA factbook Sri Lanka, Pakistan (2 million)Pakistan 1998 Census, Malaysia (1.5 million)Malaysia 2000 Census, United States (766,000)US Census p.55, South Africa (654,714)PBS Country Profile: South Africa, the Middle East (1.4 million)Lexicorient, Encyclopedia of the Orient. and the United Kingdom (558,342)2001 Great Britain National Statistics.

Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought

The six ' or orthodox schools (accepting the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are , , , Yoga, (also simply called '), and (also called )."Schools of Philosophy" The non-Vedic schools are called , or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and although anyone who is not an Astik is a Nastik. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Yoga, , and . The sex schools are known as "Shat Astik (Hindu) Darshana."

Yoga

Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goal is , or . It, like the s, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit () and the nature (), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God ().

The s, sage ’s and the are indispensable literature to the study of Yoga; they elaborate on , Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga. Of these, the is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.

Purva Mimamsa

Among the six schools of philosophy, a prominent school which advocates ritualistic sacrifices and karma for the freedom of the soul is called school (also simply called ) or Karma Mimamsa. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals."Purva Mimamsa" An Analysis of the Brahma Sutra by Swami Krishnananda

Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is also known as Vedanta. Vedanta means the anta or culmination or essence of the Vedas. It is a principal branch of Hindu philosophy. Literally, the end of the Vedas is constituted by the series of literature termed as the Aranyakas (the forest scriptures), of which the Upanishads form the chief constituent. The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of one absolute reality termed as Brahman is the main principle of Vedanta. The Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Shankara."Schools of Vedanta"

Non duality: Advaita Vedanta

Advaita literally means "not two"; being non-dualistic, Advaita Vedanta encompasses oneness and goes even beyond (oneness is an affirmation, and "advaita" is a negation; the negation of duality encompasses the affirmation of unity). Its consolidator was Shankara (788-820). Adi Shankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Gaudapada. In this philosophy, when a human being tries to know the Cosmic Spirit (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the Supreme Lord ('), under the effect of an illusionary power of Brahman called . An analogy is given that when the reflection of Brahman falls upon the mirror of ', its image is seen as '. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of '. Note that God is still perfect and untouched by the profanity of his divine power ', just as a magician is not surprised by his own magic. In this level of reality—the pragmatic level, God creates and rules the world with the help of his '. True knowledge of the Brahman (') is the only way to liberation; when the curtain of ' gets removed, the person realizes that there is absolutely no difference between the individual soul () and Brahman—which is the transcendental level of reality. However, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Shankara denounced caste and meaningless ritual as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth.

Qualified non-dualism: Vishistadvaita Bhakti-Vedanta

(1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman ' as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: ' (), chit (soul) and achit (matter). ' is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God ' for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, ’s system is known as qualified non-dualism. Karma along with Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.

Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta

Like ', Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with ', but his view was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the God, the individual soul and the material world and thus the system is called Dvaita (dualistic) or tattvavada (argument for reality). Dvaita provides a greater role to Bhakti than other schools of Vedanta.

Important themes and symbols in Hinduism

Tilaka (symbol on the forehead or between the eyebrows)

The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. Hindus traditionally wear tilaka, in one form or another, as a mark of faith in a particular tradition. Entry: tilaka Hindus may wear tilaka always or especially on religious occasions.

The shape of the tilaka often represents devotion to a certain deity: a 'U' shape for Vishnu, three horizontal lines for Shiva. Some Hindus meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva).

To denote marriage and auspiciousness, married women today commonly wear on the forehead a decorative dot, or .

Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow

Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas, or eternal vows/restraints in Raja Yoga. In part at least, it has also been influenced from the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism.

A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, states like Gujarat, which has had significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian.Deep Vegetarianism (1999) by: Michael Allen Fox. Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic/tamasic. Another 20% of the Hindu population practice vegetarianism on certain days, especially on the day of their deity of devotion.

Those Hindus who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from beef. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term gau mata, or Cow Mother). While most contemporary Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many venerate her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. There exists a legal ban against cow-slaughter in almost all states of the Indian Union.

Hindu symbolism

Aum (or Om, ॐ) is the sacred symbol that represents God (Brahman). It is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. It is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Vishnu (A), Shiva (U) and Brahmā (M). As the divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence. In the Upanishads it also appears as an affirmation, as in allowing or in saying 'yes'. The written syllable serves as a deeply significant and distinctly recognizable symbol for Hindu dharma.

(卐) is an Arya, or noble and auspicious, symbol. It is a symbol of the action of the Principle on Manifestation. It also stands for purity of soul, satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture, and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of its recent subversion by Nazism, which used a tilted version of this symbol under the name Hakenkreuz, and purportedly associated it with the notion of "purity of race".

The Mandala of the hexagram, based on the symbolism of the number 6, is a symbol of Analogy. In another interpretation (universal symbols have many interpretations) it is formed by the intertwining of the "fire" and "water" triangles (the male "blade" and the female "chalice") this symbol also represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union.

Murtis (icons)

Worship of God (the unique truth that can be seen by humans in any manifestation) is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons () which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines). It bears mention that Shiva is almost always worshipped as a pillar-like stone called Lingam. Some interpret the term lingam as a Phallus due to its shape and certain Puranic stories, but actually, this Sanskrit word means any sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret it as a mystic column (stambha) trying to represent the infiniteness of Shiva.

In a Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Veneration of such Murtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues.

Mantra

In Hindu thought, meditation according to Vedanta is the repetition of a sacred formula-a mantra. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Om is the first mantra in the Vedas and the Upanishads. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition, usually through a rosary). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength."Mantra and Japa" Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words are said to have been a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: ''"Hé Ram!"'.

The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda 3.62.10. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken from the ancient times, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges) while chanting Gayatri and Mahamrityunjaya mantra.Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of hymns and mantras.

Criticism

Hinduism is criticized on the basis of some past and some current social customs such as Dowry, Sati and the caste system. These trends are however on the decline in recent times due to a growing population of large well-educated Hindu middle class. Another criticism is directed towards the rise of Hindu nationalism in India, which has followed similar trends as the rise of the Christian Right in the west. This movement has been blamed by its critics for religious riots, such as the one which followed the destruction of Babri mosque in 1992. The Babri Mosque was believed by some people and historians to have been constructed by Muslim rulers after destroying an original Hindu temple at that site which marked the birth-place of the highly revered , an incarnation of Vishnu, though archeological excavations have so far revealed little evidence of such a temple.

Notes

References

• David Lynch and Transcendental Meditation
• Physicians Speak on Transcendental Meditation
• Leadership and Transcendental Meditation
• Education and Transcendental Meditation

1. Read 150 Vedic scriptures online
2. R. Balasubramanian, "Advaita Vedanta". History of Science, Philosophy, and Culture in Indian Civilization, vol. II, part 2, 2000.
3. Thom Brooks, 'In Search of Shiva: Mahadeviyakka's Virashaivism', Asian Philosophy 12 (2002): 21-34.
4. Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. ^*
5. Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
6. Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. The Upanishads. Penguin Arkana.
7. (Article on) Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
8. Rigveda (English trans. by Griffith)
9. "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online
10. Bhagavad Gita
11. Sinha, H. S., 1993, Bhāratīya Darshan Kī Rūparekhā (Hindi), Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi–Mumbai–Varanasi.
12. Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, (Shukla) Yajurveda (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
13. Acharya, S. S., (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, Brihadāranyakopanishad (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
14. Vanita R., "The self is not gendered: Sulabha's debate with King Janaka". NWSA Journal, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pg. 76, 2003.
15. René Guénon "Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines" ("Introduction générale à l'étude des doctrines hindoues", 1921)
16. René Guénon "Man and His Becoming according to the Vedânta" ("L'homme et son devenir selon le Vêdânta", 1925)
17. René Guénon "Studies in Hinduism" ("Études sur l'Hindouisme", 1966)

See also

• Ayurveda
• Ashvamedha

Hinduism

• Agama Hindu Dharma (Indonesian Hinduism)
• Contemporary Hindu movements
• Hinduism by country
• Hindu calendar
• Hindu deities
• Hindu idealism
• Hindu temples
• List of famous Hindu temples
• List of Hindu denominations
• List of Hindus
• List of Hinduism-related articles
• Sanskrit
• Vedic science
• Puja
• Hinduism and other religions
• Ayurveda
• Indology
• Criticism of Hinduism
• Apostasy in Hinduism
• Evolution of Shaivism
• Forgiveness (contains section on Hinduism)

Related systems and religions

• Eastern philosophy
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• Sikhism
• Taoism
• Zoroastrianism

External links

• A Tribute To Hinduism - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
• Hinduism.co.za
• Heart of Hinduism: An overview of Hindu traditions produced by practitioners. Based on a widely-used UK schools text
• Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda - Presented at World Parliament of Religion in 1893 (Text + Audio Version)
• Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies Lectures and seminars in MP3 Audio format by the OCHS as reference material for scholars and students.
• Authentic Hinduism Encyclopedia
• MSN Encarta - Hinduism
• BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism
• Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism
• Hindu.org
• Hindunet.org
• Hindu scriptures in streaming audio
• Hinduism and Hinduism resources
• International Society for Krishna Consciousness - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.

Hinduism Indo-European Vegetarianism Eastern culture Religious faiths, traditions, and movements Religion in India

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