Nomenclature

History of conducting

From around the 17th century other devices to indicate the passing of time were used. Rolled up sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown being used in contemporary pictures. The large staff remained in use at the Opera Garnier in Paris, and was responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully—he hit his foot with the staff while conducting, and the wound became gangrenous.

In instrumental music, a single performer usually acted as the conductor. This could be the principal violinist, who used his bow as a baton, or a lutenist who would move the neck of his instrument in time with the beat. It was also common to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces which had a basso continuo part. In opera performances there were sometimes two conductors - one at the keyboard in charge of the singers, and the principal violinist in charge of the orchestra.

By the early 19th century, music had become sufficiently complex that it was desirable to have one person dedicated to conducting, not having to concern himself with performing as well. Accordingly, the baton became more common - this had the added advantage of being easier to see than bare hands or rolled-up paper by the orchestra, which was at this time expanding in size. Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr, Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn, all of them also composers. Mendelssohn is known to have been the first conductor to utilize a wooden baton to keep time, an innovation that is still with us today.

Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner were also conductors, and they wrote two of the earliest essays dedicated to the subject. Berlioz is considered the first virtuoso conductor. Wagner was largely responsible for shaping the conductor's role as somebody who imposes his own view of a piece onto the performance rather than somebody who is simply responsible for ensuring entries are made at the right time and that there is a unified beat.

Conducting technique

An understanding of the three basic elements of musical expression (tempo, dynamics and style) makes any conductor capable of conveying a basic interpretation of the music to the performers. However, it does not give the conductor mastery of the nuances of shading and phrasing that can only come with experience.

There is a particular distinction between orchestral conducting and choral conducting. Orchestral conductors typically use a baton (though not always: this is up to the conductor's personal preference), and giving a clear beat to the players is central. Choral conductors rarely use a baton, and although the beat is an important part of choral conducting, conductors tend to concentrate on musical expression and shape, making their movements appear more abstract.

Despite this wide variety of styles, a number of standard conventions have developed.

Beat and tempo

The two most important movements are the downbeat, which indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat, which indicates the last beat of the bar. The instant at which the beat occurs is called the ictus (plural: ictus or ictuses), usually indicated by a sudden (though not necessarily large) change in hand (or baton) motion. The gesture leading up to the ictus is called the preparation, and the conductor's principal responsibility is to provide a preparation which forecasts with certainty the exact moment of the coming ictus, so that all the players (or singers) can play simultaneously.

If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time signature is compound, a conductor will sometimes indicate 'subdivisions' of the beats. For instance, in a particularly slow quadruple time, the conductor may beat down-and-left-and-right-and-up-and, where each 'and' is marked with a movement to an intervening point in the shape that is traced in the air.

Some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the hands to mirror each other's movements, though others view this as redundant and therefore to be avoided. In any case, the second hand is also used for turning pages in the sheet music, cueing the entrances of individual players or sections, and indicating other aspects of expression.

Tempo

Dynamics

Volume can be fine-tuned using various intuitive signals: for instance, showing one's palm to the performers in a 'stop' gesture, leaning away from them or putting a finger to the lips can be used to demonstrate a decrease in volume. In choral conducting, wiggling the fingers of the right hand is also an accepted signal for 'sing much more quietly'.

All these signals can be combined with eye contact or pointing to particular sections or performers in order to adjust the overall balance of the various instruments or voices.

Entries

Cueing is done either by pointing at the section at the appropriate time (though many orchestral players consider this poor etiquette) or by eye contact. In the case of complex music where several parts enter simultaneously, the latter is obviously more practical. When more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time, it is often effective simply to look in their general direction. Along with looking at the section some conductors will add "harder" beat but not gesture specificly to the section.

While most entries only require eye contact, a bigger moment in the music may warrant the use of a hand gesture. This could be deliberately choreographed beforehand by the conductor when studying the score, or a spontaneous gesture designed to generate emotion and energy.

Other expressions

Staccato and legato can be differentiated by more or less 'spiky' movements. Phrasing is indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or side-to-side. A held note is often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up, and the end of a note is denoted by the closing of the palm, the pinching of finger and thumb, or by tracing a rapidly-twisted spiral with a finger or baton.

Rules of thumb

A good conductor aims to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye contact in return and increasing the general dialogue between players/singers and conductor. Facial expressions are also important; all performers, but especially less experienced ones, respond well to encouraging expressions.

Further reading

• Norman Lebrecht, The Maestro Myth: Great Conductors in Pursuit of Power, 2nd Rev&Up edition, Citadel Press 2001

• Brock McElheran, "Conducting Technique"

• Max Rudolph, "The Grammar Of Conducting"

• Larry G. Curtis and David L. Kuehn, "A Guide To Successful Instrumental Conducting."

See also

• List of conductors
• Cheironomy

External links

• Intro to Conducting
• What to Think About When You Conduct (an orchestra)

Occupations in music

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