Caste

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Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, such as clans, gentes, or the Indian caste system. The word caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning "lineage".

Definitions

Anthropologists use the term more generally, to refer to a social group that is endogamous and occupationally specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility. In its broadest sense, examples of caste-based societies include South Africa during the era of apartheid; the antebellum South of the United States until the Civil Rights movement; and colonial Latin America under Spanish and Portuguese rule (see Casta), apart from India prior to 1947.

Indian caste system

However, a difference arises when comparing caste-like systems in other countries to India. In the other countries, the separation between one group and the other was usually along racial lines. Within India, that is not so. Nor is there any discernable dichotomy (white/black or high/low) because both the caste system forms a continuum that defies such ready definition. In major parts of the country, the so-called 'lower' or 'subaltern' castes control agricultural land and exert phenomenal influence in their villages. It is quite typical for 'higher' castes to be impoverished or indigent; the fact that their population is small relative to other castes also implies that they exert little influence on the modern, electoral political system in India. However, many lower-caste people live in conditions of great poverty and social disadvantage, forming the most impoverished segment of a very indigent country.

The concept of 'upper' and 'lower' caste is therefore a matter of social standing and ritual pollution rather than anything based on wealth or influence. In the past, some castes would not allow other caste members to touch them, and would have washed themselves or their possessions if they had been touched by someone from a "lower" caste. In some parts of India, there was the practice of defining the physical distance one should keep from persons of another caste. As a result of this, children who attended a school where children of lower castes were present had to bathe in running water before returning home. In some parts of the world and India, such caste discrimination still exists, though it is punishable by law.

Loss of caste could occur if individuals strayed from the norms of behavior expected of them; for instance, if one married a person belonging to another caste. This is similar to the Christian concept of excommunication. Naturally, conversion (generally to Christianity or Islam) also had a similar result. Despite the marketing efforts of proselytizers, the fact is that converts rarely achieve emancipation from the caste system and gain an equal social standing with people of privilage. Even among converts, matrimony between members of different castes is rare, although it is not unknown. The incidence can be said to be around the same as in Hindu society.

Puranic legend on the origin of castes

In the Puranas, it is said that the creator of the universe, Lord Brahma, created some humans from his head - they took to education in a big way and became the Brahmins. Then he created other humans from his biceps, they became the Kshatriyas, bearers of arms, the warrior and ruling class. Brahma then created some from his abdomen, who became the Vaishyas or merchants. Finally, Brahma created humans from his feet. They served the other castes even as the feet serve the man; they came to become the Sudras (manual labourers and artisans). Thus, the whole universe is held to be one organic entity, the body of the almighty.

Many scholars have the opinion that the caste system was not rigid in early vedic times. They aver that change of one's caste could be effected with relative ease, by changing ones vocation and gaining an education. Others however feel that caste began as a form of racism and interpret the meaning of the word 'sudra' to mean 'dark' or 'black'.

Jati

Major castes were subdivided into hundreds of sub-castes or Jatis. Castes were based on occupation. Endogamous marriage (including polyandry) and other association within caste was strongly enforced.

Sub-castes within a group of Jat ("birth" as opposed to Varna) were called Jati
Jati members were allowed to marry only with their Jati.
People were born into their Jati; this status couldn't be changed, unless through marriage or under rare circumstances.
Each Jati was part of a locally based system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and was linked in complex ways with networks that stretched across regions.

For example, in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, states of South India, castes based on occupation would include: Asari (carpenters), Thattar (goldsmiths), Muusaari (coppersmiths), Karuvar (ironsmiths), Ambattar (clothes-washers), Parayar (cobblers) and so on.

Modern developments

With the rapid urbanization and education of India's largely rural, agrarian population, the baneful effects of caste are fast being eradicated. The caste system and its attendant practises have been outlawed and declared punishable offences. The government of India implements a very wide and large-scale affirmative action program. Approximately 50% of all government jobs and of university seats in programs of higher education (undergraduate and above) are "reserved" for people hailing from the so-called Scheduled castes, Scheduled tribes and Other Backward Castes; see Reservation in India. While caste practises that led to the oppression of lower classes of society are getting largely eradicated, caste as a social marker is acquiring a new character: caste-based politics has developed a pervasive presence in many Indian states.

The Indian independence movement, led by Mahatma Gandhi, championed the cause of the abolition of caste which was achieved by law after independence. Dr. Ambedkar championed the cause of the untouchables or Dalits. Dr. Ambedkar, who himself was a Dalit, underwent enormous opposition, threats and intimidation in his effort to change the attitudes of the upper castes. Dr. Ambedkar is credited with the crafting of the Indian Constitution. He was not satisfied by what he felt were inevitably hollow promises given the reluctance of orthodox Hindus to revisit caste doctrines and therefore enshrined the basic principle of the affirmative action program now followed by the Indian government. Inter-caste marriages remain uncommon in contemporary India, and such marriages have often led to violent retaliation by the couples' near and dear ones. The Supreme Court of India has played a crucial role in legitimizing, and even promoting inter-caste marriages as a necessity for the progress of the Indian nation.

Nepalese caste system

Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian Jati system with numerous Jati divisions with a Varna system superimposed.

Sri Lankan caste system

Sri Lankan system resembles that of the South Indian Jati system with numerous Jati divisions without a Varna system superimposition.

Balinese caste system

Balinese caste system resembles in the Indian system with a four fold division of society. Shudras make up 97% of the society.

Yemen caste system

In Yemen there exists a caste like system that keeps Al-Akhdam social group as the perennial manual workers for the society through violence.

Pseudo-Castes in ancient Israel

Something superficially resembling the caste system was also found in Judaism (during the Temple period), where Israelites were divided into the inherited Kohen priesthood (a sub-group of Levites), who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple and performed the primary services there, other Levites, whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Kohanim, and the rest of the Israelites, whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This "caste system" had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far different in nature than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. The various groups enjoyed no restrictions on social interaction or social activity, though Kohanim were usually treated with a degree of reverence. Kohanim and Levites were specially designated for Temple activities, but were not allotted a land inheritence in Israel (for "God is his inherited portion" and "Behold, I have taken the Levites from amongst the Children of Israel... and the Levites shall be mine" 3:12). In place of land, the Levites and Kohanim were entitled to tithes, and the Israelites were charged with the task of keeping the Levites from poverty. Intermarriage was allowed within the Israelite people (with the minor marital restriction prohibiting a Kohen from marrying a divorcee, a convert, or a woman who had slept with a non-Jew), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite pseudo-"caste system" continued along lines of Patrilineal descent. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Kohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.

Castes in Africa

Countries in Africa who have societies with caste systems within their borders include Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Algeria, Nigeria, Chad, Ethiopia and Somalia.

The Osu caste system in Nigeria and southern Cameroon, can be traced back to an indigenous religious belief system, practiced within the Igbo nation. It is the belief of many Igbo traditionalists that the Osus are people historically owned by deities, and are therefore considered to be a 'living sacrifice', an outcaste, untouchable and sub-human.

Caste systems in Somali outcaste Midgan-Madhiban, Yibir, Tumal and other groups deemed to be impure. The outcaste clans do not descend from the Arabic-origin ancestors of the political powerful noble caste, such as the Darood, Hawiye and Isaak clans, and are traditionally forbidden to socialize with others in Somali society, have no access to public wells and other water sources, cannot own land and are not allowed to live in villages.

Among the Mande societies in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana people are divided by occupation and ethnic ties. The highest hierarchy in the Mande caste system, the Horon (nobles/freeborn), are traditionally comprised of farmers, fisherman, warriors and animal breeders, the lowest caste are the Jonow, a "slave" caste, made up of people whose ancestors were enslaved by other Africans during tribal wars. The Wolof hierarchical caste system in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the Geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendents) and the outcasted neeno (people of caste).

The caste system found amongst the Borana in North Eastern Kenya is divided into four distinct castes. At the top, there are Borana Gutu (Pure), followed by Gabra, then Sakuye, and Watta, a traditional hunter-gatherer caste, being the last. The Watta are condemned to life-long servitude for members of the higher castes. Among the Tuareg societies found in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, exists a similar caste system, where the Bellah slave caste is treated as slaves to other castes.

In Rwanda, Burundi and eastern Congo it is known as ubuhake. The Tutsi, who comprise about 15% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the "Kshatriyas" in the Vedic system. Below them were the Hutu, the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic Sudras; about 80% of the population. Fewer than 3% of the population are Twa or Pygmies, who occupy a position similar to that of 'tribals' in the Indian system.

During the German suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The Belgian colonialists who succeeded them after World War I continued this policy, instituting 'ethnic' identity cards. They also incorporated subsidiary populations, such as the Hima and the Baganwa, into the Tutsi.

After independence, tensions intensified. In 1972, Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the 1990s, Hutus responded with counter-massacres.

Notes

References

Spectres of Agrarian Territory by David Ludden December 11, 2001
Early Evidence for Caste in South India, p. 467-492 in Dimensions of Social Life: Essays in honor of David G. Mandelbaum, Edited by Paul Hockings and Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, Amsterdam, 1987.

External links

Sites

http://www.idsn.org International Dalit Solidarity Network
http://www.dalits.org National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights
http://www.dalits.nl Dalit Network Netherlands
Anti-Caste Information Page On caste, communalism, and class struggle.
Ambedkar.org
Caste & the Tamil Nation - Brahmins, Non Brahmins & Dalits

Articles

Caste | Social groups of India | Sociology

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