article

Zeta was the Serbian independent principality that replaced the ancient Kingdom of Duklja (Latin: Doclea) for the Serbian territories roughly encompassing present-day Republic of Montenegro. It was named after the river of Zeta.

Zeta was first noted as a vassalaged part of Rascia, ruled by heirs to the Serbian throne from the Nemanjić dynasty. As soon as the heir would become Grand Župan of Rascia or King of Serbs, the fief would be granted to the next heir.

Zeta became virtually independent from Rascia in 1356, under the leadership of Balša I, who became ruler of Zeta. In 1371, Zeta gained full independence from Rascia/Serbia

History

Serbian Rule

After Constantin Bodin's death, the infighting among his potential successors weakened the state of Duklja and brought about Rascia's (Serbia's) reign. Between 1183 and 1186, relying on the domestic feudal lords who betrayed the state interest, the Grand Župan of Rascia/Serbia, Stefan Nemanja, conquered Zeta and ended the first period of the Montenegrin state.

With the conquest of Duklja/Zeta, as it was referred to from the 11th century, Nemanja is said to have destroyed entire coastal towns, except for Kotor, that never subsequently recovered. In the tide of destruction, Nemanja also had destroyed monuments of Latin literacy by burning local churches and books. It is claimed that he also persecuted the Bogomils, and expelled the Greeks from Zeta.

Duklja's/Zeta's destruction was accompanied with the forceful conversion of Zeta's population to Orthodox Christianity. In 1185, Bar's archbishop Grgur escaped Nemanja's reprisal, which, factually and formally, ended the existence of the Archdiocese in Bar.

In 1190, Stefan Nemanja's son Vukan II, the first time mentioned Regent of Duklja/Zeta, asserted the Dukljan crown. He converted to Catholicism in order to be accepted by Zeta's feudal lords. Zeta's King Vukan, restored the Archdiocese in Bar in 1199, after approval of Pope Innocent III. In 1219, the regent of Zeta and the oldest son of King Vukan, Đorđe Nemanjić, became king of Duklja/Zeta. He was succeeded by his second oldest son, Uroš I (mentioned in 1252), who built the 'Uspenje Bogorodice' monastery in Morača.

Between 1276 and 1309, Queen Jelena, a Catholic from the Kurtene family, widow of Rascia's/Serbia's King Uroš I, was ruling Zeta. She advanced the highest level of autonomy of the Zeta state within Nemanjić's Serbia and built and restored around 50 monasteries in Zeta, most notably Saint Srđ and Vakh on the Bojana River under Shkodër (Skadar). During this period 1296, the name Crna Gora (Montenegro) is mentioned for the first time in the charter of St. Nicholas' monastery in Vranjina, issued by Rascia's King Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić, who was the younger son of Uroš I and Jelena Kurtene. Crna Gora (Monteregro) is to be understood as the highland region under Mount Lovćen, within Zeta, and under the domination of Rascia. During King Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić's reign, at the beginning of the 14th century, the Archdiocese in Bar was the biggest feudal lord in Zeta.

From 1309 to 1321, demanded by Zeta's lords, the state was co-ruled by the oldest son of Rascia's/Serbia's Milutin (Uroš II) Nemanjić, young King Stefan (Uroš III) Dečanski. Similarly, from 1321 to 1331, Stefan's young son Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić, the future Serbian king and tzar, co-ruled Zeta with his father.

After the Serbian tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić's death in 1355, the Serbian Kingdom started to crumble and its holdings were divided among the Prince (Knjaz) Lazar Hrebeljanović, the short-lived Bosnian state of Ban Tvrtko I, who reigned from 1353 to 1391, and a semi-independent chiefdom of Zeta under the Balšić dynasty, who increasingly asserted Zeta's sovereignty. Zeta, thus, regained its independence under the second Montenegrin dynasty, the Balšić dynasty, whose founder Balša I, came to power in 1356.

The Balšić Dynasty

Independence of Zeta
The most prosperous and mightiest era of Rascia's history was brought to an end by the death of the mighty but cruel Serbian Tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić in 1355. Seizing the opportunity, the leading dynasty in Zeta, the Balšićs, reasserted Zeta's independence in 1356.

Mention of the Balšić Family
The very first written document relating to the Balšićs family is in the chart of Uroš issued to the Republic of Dubrovnik from 1360. We do not know for sure of their origin but their name is suggesting Roman origin which led many historians to believe that they came form Naples. Some also believe that the Balšić family is Albanian and/or has Albanian origin. Some Albanian people say that they are the descendants of the Balšić family (Balshaj in Albanian)

Balša I
The founder of the family and the Balšić dynasty, Balša I, was controlling one village only but with the help of his sons, he conquered Gornja Zeta and the following towns: Skadar, Kotor and most probably Bar.

Balša I, had three sons: Stracimir, Đurađ I and Balša II. Đurađ I and Balša II ruled Zeta from 1362 to 1378 and 1378 to 1385, respectively. However, the most influential Balšić is said to had been Đurađ I, who enlarged and consolidated Zeta's renewed power and took Prizren (a town in present-day Kosovo).

Đurađ I
Đurađ I became the ruler of Zeta in 1362. His rule lasted until 1378. During his rule, he coined an alliance with King Vukašin Mrnjavčević, but Vukašin Mrnjavčević soon was killed in the Battle of Marica in 1371. Olivera, Vukašin's daughter, married Đurađ I.

Đurađ I ran Zeta as the modern ruler of the time. Zeta's institutions were functioning well, while the coastal towns enjoyed considerable autonomy. The commerce was well developed and enhanced by the existence of Zeta's currency — the dinar.

Đurađ I allied with his neighbors Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović of Serbia, Ban Tvrtko I of Bosnia, Prince Nikola I Gorjanski and King Louis I of Hungary, to defeat ambitious Herzegovian ruler Nikola Altomanović in 1373. However, defeated and blinded Nikola Altomanović found a refuge with Đurađ I until his death.

While he was battling at the south of Kosovo, his younger brother, Balša II got married to Komnina, a close cousin of mighty Serbian Tzar Dušan (Uroš IV) Nemanjić's wife, Jelena. Thus, by marrying Komnina, Đurađ II received a generous dowry: Avlona, Berat, Kanina, and some additional important regions. In a division of the conquered Herzegovina, the Balšićs took the towns of Trebinje, Konavle and Dračevica. Subsequent dispute over these towns led to the war between Đurađ I Balšić and Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić that was won eventually by Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanović but with support from Hungary and only after Đurađ's death in 1378.

Balša II
In 1378, following Đurađ's death, Balša II became king of Zeta. In 1382, Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić of Bosnia conquered Dračevica, and built the town later known as Herceg-Novi (a city in present-day Montenegro). The Hungarians were supporting Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić because he, as well as Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović of Serbia recognized Hungarian rule while Balša II refused to do so. In any case, both Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić and Balša II had aspirations to be on the throne of the Nemanjić state of Rascia (Serbia). During Balša II's rule, he could not maintain the control of the feudal lords Đurađ I had controlled. His power was felt only in region around Skadar (a city in presnt-day Albania) and in the eastern part of Zeta's coast. The most prominent feudal lords who did not recognize Balsa's rule were the Đurašević-Crnojević family. They were permanently encouraged by the Venetians' intrigues to rebel against Balša II.

Balša II needed four attempt to conquer Durrës, an important commercial and strategic center. Defeated, Karl Thopia went to the Turks for help. Turkish forces led by Hajrudin Pasha inflicted heavy defeat on Balša II's forces and killed Balša II in a big battle on Saurian Field near Berat, in 1385.

Đurađ I
The successor of Balša II, Đurađ II Stracimirović Balšić, who ruled Zeta from 1385-1403, Balša's nephew and son of Stracimir, had enormous difficulties to control the local feudal lords. He did not have any control over the feudal lords in the entire Upper Zeta. In addition, the feudal lords around Onogost (a city in present-day Montenegro now known as Nikšić) accepted the Venetian protection and particularly did so Radič Crnojević, who controlled the area between Budva and Mount Lovćen. Moreover, a number of Arbanas feudal lords, particularly Lekë Dukagjini and Paul Dukagjini joined the conspiration against Đurađ II.

Having this in mind as well as the constant danger from the Turks, Đurađ II maintained good family ties with Serbian rulers of the time, Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović. His mother, Milica Mrnjavčević, was a sister of Prince Vukašin Mrnjavčević of Serbia, and he married Jelena who was a daughter of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović of Serbia. In order to help Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović to defend his state from Turkish invasion, Đurađ II sent his troops with Ban Tvrtko I Kotromanić's forces (with whom he had a dispute over Kotor) to meet the Ottoman army at Kosovo Polje. Despite Sultan Murad I's death, the orthodox coalition suffered a defeat in the epic Battle of Kosovo in 1389. According to sources, Đurađ II was not in the Battle of Kosovo but in Ulcinj in Southern Zeta.

In later years, Đurađ II played skillful diplomatic games to enhance the rivalry between the Turks and the Venetians. For that purpose, he offered Skadar to both hoping that he will be able to keep it eventually. For two years, the Turks and the Venetians fought over Shkodër to leave it eventually to Đurađ II, who was neutral in the conflict. Similarly, the rivalry between the Venetians and the Hungarians brought a benefit to Balsa II. After the heavy defeat of his forces in the hands of Venetians near Nikopolje, the Hungarian King Sigismund gave the title of Prince of Arbania and chiftainship of Hvar and Korčula (Islands now in present-day Croatia) to Balša II.

In the feud between Turkish vassal, Đurađ Branković and his uncle, Stefan Lazarević (son of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović), who later received the title of Byzantine despot, Đurađ II sided with Stefan. Due to Đurađ's support, Stefan defeated Turkish forces led by Đurađ Branković in the Battle of Gračanica on Kosovo field in June 21, 1402

Balša III
In 1403, Đurađ II's 17-year old son, Balša III, inherited the rule of Zeta as his father died in consequence of the injuries suffered in the Battle of Gračanica. As he was young and inexperienced, his main advisor was his mother Jelena, a sister of the ruler of Serbia at the time, Stefan Lazarević. Under the influence of his mother, Jelena, Balša III reverted the order of the state religion, passing the law whereby declaring Christian Orthodox as the official confession of the state, while Catholicism became tolerant confession.

Balša III continued the politics of his father. In 1418, he conquered Skadar from the Venetians, but lost Budva. In the next year, 1419, he made an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Budva. He went to Belgrade to ask for help from Stefan Lazarević, but never returned to Zeta.

Stefan Lazarević
In 1421, before Balša III's death and under the influence of his mother Jelena, he passed the rule of Zeta to Stefan Lazarević. 'Despot' Stefan fought Venetians and regained Bar in mid-1423, but in the following year, he sent his nephew Đurađ Branković, regaining Drivast and Ulcinium (Ulcinj)

Đurađ Branković
In 1427, Stefan Lazarević died and Zeta was inherited by his nephew the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković who, at the time, needed to pacify his greatest enemy, the Ottomans and could not pay particular attention to Zeta. So grave the Serbia's position was, that despot Đurađ had to accept to pay yearly tax of 50, 000 Ducats to the Turks, as well as to send his beloved daughter, Mara to Harem and make 20,000 soldiers available to Sultan Murad II whenever he needed them. Because of this, Đurađ couldn't keep control of Zeta.

End of Balšić Dynasty
In 1435, the Crnojević family took over Zeta, starting the Crnojević dynasty and the use of the name, Montenegro, instead of Zeta.

The Crnojević Dynasty

Beginning of the Dynasty
The Crnojević dynasty began with two brothers Đurađ and Ljes (Aleksa) Đurašević/Crnojević, from the area around the Mount Lovćen in northern Zeta. But far more important roles in establishing this family's rule in Zeta were played by Stefan Crnojević (1435-1465) and his son Ivan Crnojević (1465-1490). Ivan's son Đurađ Crnojević (1490-1496) was the last ruler from this dynasty. Beginning with the Crnojevic dynasty, Zeta was more often referred to as Crna Gora or Montenegro.

Importance of rule
The Crnojević dynasty is important in Montenegrin history for at least three reasons.

First, the dynasty's rule is a historical link between the tradition of the independent states of Duklja and Zeta and the modern history of independent Montenegro. During their rule, the Crnojevićs saw the powerful Ottoman armies easily crush all the neighboring countries. Serbia fell after the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Bosnia in 1463, and Herzegovina in 1483. To prevent a similar fate for Montenegro, Ivan Crnojević moved his capital from Žabljak on Lake Skadar into the highland valley of Lovćenski Dolac (precursor to the capital Cetinje) under Mount Lovćen in 1482. This event conventionally marks the beginning of the history of Montenegro and its capital, Cetinje, which was built around the Cetinje monastery.

Second, throughout the Crnojević rule, Montenegro remained independent, sustaining and extending what Montenegrins regarded as a precious tradition of sovereignty. And while the territory of Montenegro became smaller still relative to the earlier states of Duklja and Zeta, it solidified a national spirit of independence into an exceptional devotion to country and freedom.

Third, the Crnojevićs are responsible for Montenegrins' claim of an unusual primacy in the cultural development of southern Europe: introducing the first printing press in southern Europe and in printing the first books in the region.

Stefan (Stefanica)
Stefan Crnojević consolidated his power in Zeta and ruled for 38 years, from 1435 until 1465. During his rule, he saw neighboring Serbia completely subordinated to Turkey soon after the death of Đurađ Branković. Under Stefan Crnojević, Montenegro comprised the Lovćen area around Cetinje, 51 municipalities which included Rijeka Crnojevića (Crnojević River), the valley of the River Zeta and the tribes Bjelopavlići, Pješivći, Malonsići, Piperi, Hoti, Klimenti (Kelmendi) and other tribes. The population of the territories controlled by Stefan Crnojević about 30,000. Total population of Zeta/Montenegro including regions under the Venetian, Kosaca's and Turkish rule, was about 80,000. Capitalising on the weak position of despot Đurađ, both Venetians and Herzegovian despot Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, conquered parts of Đurađ's territory. Since Kosača was a Turkish vassal, Stefan I Crnojević, who had already established himself as the head of Crnojević dynasty (around 1435) in Upper Zeta/Montenegro (as this territory was known after this date), was forced to make territorial concessions. In addition Kosača took Stefan's son, Ivan as a hostage hoping that this will force Stefan to be on his side when need be.

Stefan married Mara, a daughter of a prominent Albanian, Gjon Kastrioti, whose son, Gjergj Kastrioti, was better known by his Turkish name, Skanderbeg. In 1455, Stefan entered into an agreement with his ally, Venice, stipulating that Zeta/Montenegro would recognize the nominal supremacy of Venice while maintaining its factual independence in virtually every respect. The agreement also stipulated that Montenegro would assist Venice militarily on specific occasions in exchange for an annual provision. But in all other respects, Stefan's rule in Montenegro was undisputed.

Ivan
Ivan Crnojević became ruler of Zeta/Montenegro in 1465. His rule lasted until 1490. Immediately after taking the thrown, Ivan attacked Venice braking the alliance his father, Đurađ Crnojević, had forged. He fought Venice in an attempt to capture the town of Kotor. He had some success, gaining increasing support from the local coastal tribes, Grbljani and Pastrovići in his quest to assert control of Zeta/Montenegro over the Bay of Kotor. But when the Ottoman campaign in northern Albania and Bosnia convinced him that the main source of danger to his country was to the East, he sought rapprochement with Venice. Ivan fought numerous battles against the Turks.

Zeta and Venice fought against the Ottoman Empire in the war between these two countries that ended with the successful defense of Shkodër (Skadar), where the Venetian and Zetan defenders fought off forces of against Turkish Sultan Mehmed II and eventually won the war in 1474. However, this victory was not to be long lasted, since the Sultan's forces conqured Shkodër in 1479 and signed a peace treaty with Venice, unfavorable for later. He was dreaming to organise an anti-Turkish alliance comprised of Napolitan, Venetian, Hungarian, and Zetan forces. However, his dream could not be fulfilled since the Venetians did not dare to give help to Ivan after the peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire forged in 1479. Left on his own, Ivan single-handedly managed to preserve sovereignty of Zeta/Montenegro from frequent Ottoman attacks and offensives.

Knowing that the Ottomans will try to punish Ivan for his part in the war on the Venetian side, to preserve his state and his independence, in 1482, he moved his capital from Žabljak on Lake Skadar to the mountainous area of Dolac, under Mount Lovćen. There he built the Orthodox Christian monastery around which the capital, Cetinje, emerged. This event marks the end of the history of Zeta and the beginning of the history of Montenegro, roughly coinciding with the rise to power of Đurađ Crnojević.

Đurađ IV
Đurađ IV Crnojević became ruler of Zeta in 1490. His rule lasted until 1496. Đurađ, Ivan's elder son, was an educated ruler. He is most famous for a single historical act: he used the printing press brought to Cetinje by his father to print the first books in southeastern Europe, in 1493. The Crnojević printing press marked the beginning of the printed word among the southern Slavs. The press operated from 1493 through 1496, turning out religious books of which five have been preserved: Oktoih prvoglasnik, Oktoih petoglasnik, Psaltir, Molitvenik, and Četvorojevanđelje. Đurađ managed the printing of the books, wrote prefaces and afterwords, and developed sophisticated tables of Psalms with the lunar calendar. The books from the Crnojević press were printed in two colors, red and black, and were richly ornamented. They served as models for many of the subsequent books printed in cyrillic.

After the rule of Zeta was passed to Đurađ, his youngest brother, Staniša, disillusioned with the impossibility to succeed his father, Ivan, went to Istanbul and converted to Islam. As a loyal servant of the Sultan, Staniša later became the Shkodrian 'sandzak-beg' under the name of Skender. His brothers, Đurađ and Stefan II continued the struggle against Ottomans. The historical facts are unclear and disputed, but it seems that Venetians, frustrated by their own inability to subdue Crnojevićs to their own interests, managed to kill Stefan and deceitfully sent Đurađ to Istanbul. Namely, Đurađ visited Venice in order to work on the "wide anti-Turkish campaign" but was kept in captivity for some time while his brother, Stefan II, was defending his country against Ottoman forces. It is likely that on his returned to Zeta, Đurađ was kidnapped by the Venetian agents and sent to Istanbul via Shkodër (Skadar) under accusation that he had been organising a Holy War against Islam. There are some unreliable claims that Đurađ was given to rule Anatolia but in any case the reports about Đurađ's life ceased after 1503.

The Last Years of Zeta

After the death of Đurađ Crnojević, Zeta/Montenegro was ruled by his brother Stefan II, who was a Turkish vassal. The end of the 15th century and of Stefan's rule mark the end of the Crnojević dynasty. In the new administrative division of the Balkans, Zeta/Montenegro was a part of the Skadarski Sandzakat from 1499 to 1514. During this period, while Brda and North-West of Montenegro were nominally independent, the part of Zeta/Montenegro under Mount Lovćen remained entirely independent. By the end of the 15th century, Upper Zeta/Montenegro comprised Katunska, Riječka, Crmnička, and Lješanska nahijas, and the name of Montenegro was widely in use.

In 1514, Zeta/Montenegro was proclaimed as the separate Sanjak of Montenegro, by the order of Sultan Beyazid II. For the first Sandzak-beg was chosen as Ivan Crnojević's son Staniša (Sanjakbeg), who converted to Islam, and governed until 1528. Despite Skenderbeg's emphasized cruelty, Ottomans did not have real power in Zeta/Montenegro. The real power was in the hands of tribal heads. From 1534 onwards, there is no more mentioning of Crnojevićs in Zeta/Montenegro.

The year 1516 saw a shift in the constitution of Zeta/Montenegro that many historians regard as having ensured its survival as an independent state. The last person of the Crnojević dynasty retired to Venice and he had married a Venetian. This conferred the succession upon the bishops of Cetinje. In Zeta/Montenegro, the position of vladika, as the prince-bishop was known, brought stability to that country's leadership. The link between church and state elevated it in the eyes of the peasantry, gave it an institutionalized form of succession that prevented its becoming a matter of contest between minor chieftains, and excluded the possibility of compromising alliances with the Ottomans.

The Independent Principality of Zeta ended with the Petrović-Njegoš family of Vladikas (Prince-Bishops or Prince-Episcotes) taking over in 1516. Zeta is now known as Montenegro. Although, the Ottomans controlled a part of Zeta since 1498, that was known as the Crnogorski Sandzakat, and Venice controlled Kotor.

List of Rulers

House of Nemanja

House of Balšić (Balšić Dynasty)

House of Crnojević (Crnojević Dynasty)

References

  • J. Jovanović, Stvaranje Crnogorske Države i Razvoj Crnogorske Nacionalnosti, 1947, Cetinje pages 18, 28, 36, 43, and 54-55
  • D. Živković, Istorija Crnogorskog Naroda, 1989, Cetinje

See also

History of Montenegro | History of the Serbs | 1516 disestablishments

Zeta

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Principality of Zeta".

Home Page • arts • business • computers • games • health • hospitals • home • kids & teens • news • physicians • recreation• reference • regional • science • shopping • society • sports • world