article

Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, "Great Yuezhi") is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. They are believed to have been the same as or closely related to the people named Tocharians (Τοχάριοι) by ancient Greeks. They were originally settled in the arid grasslands of the eastern Tarim Basin area, in what is today Xinjiang, Gansu, and possibly Qilian in China, before they migrated to Transoxiana, Bactria and then northern India, where they formed the Kushan Empire.

It has been proposed that in the name "Yuezhi" the Chinese character yue 月, meaning "moon," was originally rou 肉, which means "meat". Indeed, the character yue is very similar in appearance to the radicalized form of rou. "Roushi" 月氏 would literally mean "meat clan," i.e., a people who ate meat.

Origins

The first known reference to the Yuezhi was made in 645 BCE by the Chinese author Guan Zhong in his Guanzi 管子. He described the Yuzhi 禺氏, or Niuzhi 牛氏, as a people from the north-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains of Yuzhi 禺氏 at Gansu. The supply of jade from the Tarim Basin from ancient times is indeed well documented archeologically: "It is well known that ancient Chinese rulers had a strong attachment to jade. All of the jade items excavated from the tomb of Fuhao of the Shang dynasty, more than 750 pieces, were from Khotan in modern Xinjiang. As early as the mid-first millennium BCE the Yuezhi engaged in the jade trade, of which the major consumers were the rulers of agricultural China." (Liu (2001), pp. 267-268)

The Yuezhi are also documented in detail in Chinese historical accounts, in particular the 2nd-1st century BCE "Records of the Great Historian", or Shiji, by Sima Qian. According to these accounts, "the Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian, or Heavenly Mountain (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang" (Shiji, 123), corresponding to the eastern half of the Tarim Basin and the northern portion of Gansu The interpretation of Qilian into Heavenly Mountain as a dwelling location is a recent academic concept, still most believe that its referred to Qilian as state in ancient sources

The Yuezhi may have been a Caucasoid people, as indicated by the portraits of their kings on the coins they struck following their exodus to Transoxiana (2nd-1st century BCE), and especially the coins they struck in India as Kushans (1st-3rd century CE). However no direct records for the name of Yuezhi rulers are known to exist, and the portraits on their first coins may not be accurate.

Ancient Chinese sources do describe the existence of "white people with long hair" (The Bai people of the Shan Hai Jing) beyond their northwestern border, and the very well preserved Tarim mummies with Caucasian features, often with reddish or blond hair, today displayed at the Ürümqi Museum and dated to the 3rd century BCE, have been found in precisely the same area of the Tarim Basin.

The Indo-European Tocharian languages also have been attested in the same geographical area, and although the first known epigraphic evidence dates to the 6th century CE, the degree of differentiation between Tocharian A and Tocharian B, and the absence of Tocharian language remains beyond that area, tends to indicate that a common Tocharian language existed in the same area of Yuezhi settlement during the second half of the 1st millennium BCE.

According to one theory, the Yuezhi were probably part of the large migration of Indo-European speaking peoples who were settled in eastern Central Asia (possibly as far as Gansu) at that time. Another example is that of the Caucasian mummies of Pazyryk, probably Scythian in origin, located around 1,500 kilometers north-west of the Yuezhi, and dated also to around the 3rd century BCE.

According to Han accounts, the Yuezhi "were flourishing" during the time of the first great Chinese Qin emperor, but were regularly in conflict with the neighbouring tribe of the Xiongnu to the northeast.

Bhim Singh Dahiya has suggested that the Kushans or Yuezhi were Jats. Also, the Greek historian Herodotus may have written Massagetae for Ta-Yuezhi (Great Yuezhi) and Thyssagetae for Siao-Yuezhi (Little Yuezhi).

The Yuezhi exodus

The Yuezhi sometimes practiced the exchange of hostages with the Xiongnu, and at one time were hosts to Modu (Ch:冒頓), son of the Xiongnu leader. Maodun stole a horse and escaped when the Yuezhi tried to kill him in retaliation for an attack by his father. Maodun subsequently became ruler of the Xiongnu after killing his father.

Around 177 BCE, led by one of Maodun's tribal chiefs, the Xiongnu invaded Yuezhi territory in the Gansu region and achieved a crushing victory. Maodun boasted in a letter to the Han emperor that due to "the excellence of his fighting men, and the strength of his horses, he has succeeded in wiping out the Yuezhi, slaughtering or forcing to submission every number of the tribe". The son of Maodun, Jizhu, subsequently killed the king of the Yuezhi and, in accordance with nomadic traditions, "made a drinking cup out of his skull".

Following Chinese sources, a large part of the Yuezhi people therefore fell under the domination of the Xiongnu, and these may have been the ancestors of the Tocharian speakers attested in the 6th century CE. A very small group of Yuezhi fled south to the territory of the Proto-Tibetan Qiang, and came to be known to the Chinese as the "Small Yuezhi". According to the Hanshu, they only numbered around 150 famillies.

Finally, a large group of the Yuezhi fled from the Tarim Basin/ Gansu area towards the northwest, first settling in the Ili valley, immediately north of the Tian Shan mountains, where they confronted and defeated the Sai (Sakas or Scythians): "The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a considerable distance to the south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands" (Han Shu 61 4B). The Sai undetook their own migration, which was to lead them as far as Kashmir, after travelling through a "Suspended Crossing' (probably the Khunjerab Pass between present-day Xinjiang and northern Pakistan). The Sakas ultimately established an Indo-Scythian kingdom in northern India.

After 155 BCE, the Wusun, in alliance with the Xiongnu and out of revenge from an earlier conflict, managed to disloge the Yuezhi, forcing them to move south. The Yuezhi crossed the neighbouring urban civilization of the Dayuan in Ferghana, and settled on the northern bank of the Oxus, in the region of Transoxiana, in modern-day Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, just north of the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom. The Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus was apparently burnt to the ground by the Yuezhi around 145 BCE.

Settlement in Transoxiana

The Yuezhi were visited by a Chinese mission, led by Zhang Qian in 126 BCE, that was seeking an offensive alliance with the Yuezhi to counter the Xiongnu threat to the north. Although the request for an alliance was denied by the son of the slain Yuezhi king, who preferred to maintain peace in Transoxiana rather than to seek revenge, Zhang Qian made a detailed account, reported in the Shiji, that gives a lot of insight into the situation in Central Asia at that time.

Zhang Qian, who spent a year with the Yuezhi and in Bactria, relates that "the Great Yuezhi live 2,000 or 3,000 li (1,000-1,500 kilometers) west of Dayuan (Ferghana), north of the Gui (Oxus) river. They are bordered on the south by Daxia (Bactria), on the west by Anxi (Parthia), and on the north by Kangju (Sogdiana). They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors." (Shiji 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Although they remained north of the Oxus for a while, they apparently obtained the submission of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom to the south of the Oxus. The Yuezhi were organized into five major tribes, each led by a yabgu, or tribal chief, and known to the Chinese as Xiūmì (Ch:休密) in Western Wakhān and Zibak, Guishang (Ch:貴霜) in Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the Oxus, Shuangmi (Ch:雙靡) in the region of Shughnan, Xidun (Ch:肸頓) in the region of Balk, and Dūmì (Ch:都密) in the region of Termez 月氏为匈奴所灭，遂迁于大夏，分其国为休密、双靡、贵霜、肸顿、都密，凡五部翕候。Hanshu 96 "After their extermination by the Xiongnu, the Yuezhi occupied Bactria, where they divided the country into five tribes, the Xiūmì, the Shuangmi, the Guishang, the Xidun, the Dūmì, all five tribes headed by a Yagbu" *

A description of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom was made by Zhang Qian after the conquest by Yuezhi:

"Ta-Hsia (Greco-Bactria) is located over 2,000 li southwest of Ta-Yuan, south of the Gui (Oxus) river. Its people cultivate the land and have cities and houses. Their customs are like those of Ta-Yuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked the lands, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is called the city of Lanshi (Bactra) and has a market where all sorts of goods are bought and sold." ("Records of the Great Historian" by Sima Qian, quoting Zhang Qian, trans. Burton Watson)

In a sweeping analysis of the physical types and cultures of Central Asia that he visited in 126 BCE, Zhang Qian reports that "although the states from Dayuan west to Anxi (Parthia), speak rather different languages, their customs are generally similar and their languages mutually intelligible. The men have deep-set eyes and profuse beards and whiskers." (Shiji 123, trans. Burton Watson).

Invasion of Bactria

Some time after 126 BCE, possibly disturbed by further incursions of rivals from the north, and apparently vanquished by the Parthian king Mithridates II, the Yuezhi moved south to Bactria. Bactria had been conquered by the Macedonians under Alexander the Great in 330 BCE, and since settled by the Hellenistic civilization of the Seleucids and the Greco-Bactrians for two centuries.

This event is recorded in Classical Greek sources, when Strabo presented them as a Scythian tribe, and explained that the Tokharians -- together with the Assianis, Passianis and Sakaraulis -- took part in the destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in the second half of the 2nd century BCE:

"Most of the Scythians, beginning from the Caspian Sea, are called Dahae Scythae, and those situated more towards the east Massagetae and Sacae; the rest have the common appellation of Scythians, but each separate tribe has its peculiar name. All, or the greatest part of them, are nomads. The best known tribes are those who deprived the Greeks of Bactriana, the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, and Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of the Jaxartes, opposite the Sacae and Sogdiani."
(Strabo, 11-8-1)

The last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles I retreated and moved his capital to the Kabul valley. The eastern part of Bactria was occupied by Pashtun people.

As they settled in Bactria from around 125 BCE, the Yuezhi became Hellenized to some degree, as suggested by their adoption of the Greek alphabet and by some remaining coins, minted in the style of the Greco-Bactrian kings, with the text in Greek. The area of Bactria they settled came to be known as Tokharistan, since the Yuezhi were called "Tocharians" by the Greeks.

Commercial relations with China also flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BCE: "The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).

The Hou Hanshu also records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinese capital in 2 BCE, who gave oral teachings on Buddhist sutras to a student, suggesting that some Yuezhi already followed the Buddhist faith during the 1st century BCE (Baldev Kumar (1973)).

A later Chinese annotation of the 7th-century by Zhang Shoujie, quoted from the Nanzhouzhi (a now-lost text from the 3rd-century) describes the Kushans as living in the same general area north of India, in cities of Greco-Roman style, and with sophisticated handicraft. The Chinese never adopted the term "Kushans", and continued to call them "Yuezhi":

"The Great Yuezhi is located about seven thousand li (2500-3000 km) north of India. Their land is at a high altitude; the climate is dry; the region is remote. The king of the state calls himself "son of heaven". There are so many riding horses in that country that the number often reaches several hundred thousand. City layouts and palaces are quite similar to those of Daqin (the Roman empire). The skin of the people there is reddish white. People are skilful at horse archery. Local products, rarities, treasures, clothing, and upholstery are very good, and even India cannot compare with it." References and quote (Note 36)

Expansion into the Hindu-Kush

The area of the Hindu-Kush (Paropamisadae) was ruled by the western Indo-Greek king until the reign of Hermaeus (reigned c. 90–70 BCE). After that date, no Indo-Greek kings are known in the area, which was probably overtaken by the neighbouring Yuezhi, who had been in relation with the Greeks for a long time. According to Bopearachchi, no trace of Indo-Scythians occupation (nor coins of major Indo-Scythian rulers such as Maues or Azes I) have been found in the Paropamisadae and western Gandhara.

As they had done in Bactria with their copying of Greco-Bactrian coinage, the Yuezhi copied the coinage of Hermeaus on a vast scale, up to around 40 CE, when the design blends into the coinage of the Kushan king Kujula Kadphises.

The first presumed, and documented, Yuezhi prince is Sapadbizes (probably a yabgu's prince of Yuezhi confederation), who ruled around 20 BCE, and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek kings.

Foundation of the Kushan empire

By the end of the 1st century BCE, one of the five tribes of the Yuezhi, the Kui-Shan (Ch: 貴霜, Guishang, origin of name Kushan adopted in the West), managed to take control of the Yuezhi confederation. According to some theories, the Kui-Shan may have been distinct from the Yuezhi, possibly of Saka origins. From that point, the Yuezhi extended their control over the northwestern area of the Indian subcontinent, founding the Kushan Empire, which was to rule the region for several centuries. The Yuezhi came to be known as Kushan among Western civilizations, however the Chinese kept calling them Yuezhi throughout their historical records over a period of several centuries.

The Yuezhi/ Kushans expanded to the east during the 1st century CE, to found the Kushan Empire. The first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises ostensibly associated himself with Hermaeus on his coins, suggesting that he may have been one of his descendants by alliance, or at least wanted to claim his legacy.

The unification of the Yuezhi tribes and the rise of the Kushan is documented in the Chinese Historical chronicle Hou Hanshu:

"More than a hundred years later, the xihou (Ch:翖侯, "Allied Prince") of Guishuang (Badakhshan and the adjoining territories north of the Oxus), named Qiujiu Que (Ch: 丘就卻 "Ch’iu-chiu-ch’üeh", Kujula Kadphises) attacked and exterminated the four other xihou ("Allied Princes"). He set himself up as king of a kingdom called Guishang (Kushan). He invaded Anxi (Parthia) and took the Gaofu (Ch:高附 "Kao-fu", Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puta (Parthuaia, 55 CE) and Kipin (Ch: 罽賓 "Chi-pin", Kapisa-Peshawar). Qiujiu Que (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died.

His son, Yan Gaozhen (Ch:閻高珍) (Vima Takto), became king in his place. He returned and defeated Tianzhu (Northwestern India) and installed a General to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call king the Guishuang (Kushan) king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi." (Hou Hanshu, trans. John Hill, 后百余岁，贵霜翕候丘就却攻灭四翕候，自立为王，国号贵霜王。侵安息，取高附地。又灭濮达、罽宾，悉有其国。丘就却年八十余死，子阎膏珍代为王。复灭天竺，置将一人监领之。月氏自此之后，最为富盛，诸国称之皆曰贵霜王。汉本其故号，言大月氏云。Hanshu, 96 *).

The Yuezhi/Kushan integrated Buddhism into a pantheon of many deities, became great promoters of Mahayana Buddhism, and their interactions with Greek civilization helped the Gandharan culture and Greco-Buddhism flourish.

During the 1st and 2nd century, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north and occupied parts of the Tarim Basin, their original grounds, putting them at the center of the lucrative Central Asian commerce with the Roman Empire. They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they collaborated with the Chinese general Ban Chao against the Sogdians in 84 CE, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar. Around 85 CE, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack on Turfan, east of the Tarim Basin.

In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested, but were denied, a Han princess, even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 CE with a force of 70,000, but, exhausted by the expedition, were finally defeated by the smaller Chinese force. The Kushans retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han He (89-106).

Later, the Yuezhi/Kushans established a kingdom centered on Kashgar around 120 CE, and introduced the Brahmi script, the Indian Prakrit language for administration, and Greco-Buddhist art which developed into Serindian art.

Benefiting from this territorial expansion, the Yuezhi/Kushans were among the first to introduce Buddhism to northern and northeastern Asia, by direct missionary efforts and the translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. Major Yuezhi missionary and translators included Lokaksema and Dharmaraksa, who went to China and established translation bureaus, thereby being at the center of the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.

The Chinese kept referring to the Kushans as Da Yuezhi throughout the centuries. In the Sanguozhi (三國志, chap 3), it is recorded that in 229 CE "The king of the Da Yuezhi, Bodiao 波調 (Vasudeva I), sent his envoy to present tribute, and His Majesty (Emperor Cao Rui) granted him the title of "King of the Da Yuezhi Intimate with the Wei (魏)."

Presumed Yuezhi rulers

Notes

References

  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu. Draft annotated English translation.*
  • Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. *
  • Liu, Xinru: Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan. Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies in: Journal of World History, 12 (No. 2) 2001, p. 261-292. See *
  • "Records of the Great Historian, Han Dynasty II", Sima Qian, translated by Burton Watson, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-08167-7
  • Mallory, J.P. and Victor H. Mair,The Tarim Mummies. Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson, London 2000. ISBN 0-500-05101-1

See also

External links

Kushan empire | Ancient peoples of China | Eurasian nomads | Former countries in Chinese history | History of Pakistan

Юеджи | Yuezhi | Yuezhi | 月氏 | Yuezhi | 月氏

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Yuezhi".

Home Page • arts • business • computers • games • health • hospitals • home • kids & teens • news • physicians • recreation• reference • regional • science • shopping • society • sports • world