War of the Pacific

The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Saltpeter War in reference to its original cause, was fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru, from 1879 to 1884. Chile gained substantial mineral-rich territory in the conflict, annexing both the Peruvian province of Tarapacá and the Bolivian province of Litoral, leaving Bolivia as a land-locked country.

Origins

The War of the Pacific grew out of a dispute between Chile and Bolivia over control of a part of the Atacama desert that lies between the 23rd and 26th parallels on the Pacific coast. The territory contained valuable mineral resources which were exploited by Chilean companies and British interests; a tax increase on these quickly escalated into a commercial dispute, diplomatic crisis and war.

Control of natural resources

The dry climate of the area had permitted the accumulation and preservation of huge quantities of high-quality nitrate deposits — guano and saltpeter — over thousands of years. The discovery during the 1840s of their use as fertilizer and as a key ingredient in explosives made the area strategically valuable; Bolivia, Chile and Peru had suddenly found themselves sitting on the largest reserves of a resource that the world needed for economic and military expansion. Not long after this discovery, world powers were directly or indirectly vying for control of the area's resources. The USA had passed legislation in 1856 enabling its citizens to take possession of islands containing guano. Spain had seized Peruvian territory, but was repulsed by Peru and Chile fighting as allies during the Chincha Islands War. Heavy British capital investment drove development through the area, although Peru later nationalized guano exploitation during the 1870s.

In any case, an unresolved border issue would come to the forefront in the next few decades.

Border dispute

Bolivian and Chilean historians disagree on whether the territory of Charcas, originally part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, later of the Viceroyalty of La Plata and ultimately of Bolivia, included access to the sea. Supporting their claims with different documents, Bolivians claim that it did while Chileans disagree. When Simón Bolívar established Bolivia, he claimed access to the sea, although most economic exploitation of the coastal region was being conducted by Chilean companies and British interests, under the aegis of Chile's more robust economy and more stable institutions.

National borders in the region had not been clearly agreed until 1866; the two countries had negotiated a treatyBorder treaty of 1866 between Bolivia and Chile (Tratado de límites de 1866 entre Bolivia y Chile, in Spanish) that established the 24th parallel as their boundary, and entitled Bolivia and Chile to share in tax revenue on mineral exports out of the territory between the 23rd and 25th parallels. A second treaty in 1874 superseded this, entitling Bolivia to collect full tax revenue between the 23rd and 24th parallels, but fixed tax rates on Chilean companies for 25 yearsBorder treaty of 1874 between Bolivia and Chile (Tratado de límites de 1874 entre Bolivia y Chile, in Spanish). Bolivia subsequently became dissatisfied at the arrangement, as Chilean interests backed by British capital quickly expanded and controlled the mining industry, and feared Chilean encroachment on its coastal region.

Crisis and war

In 1878 the Bolivian government of President Hilarión Daza, decreed a backdated 1874 tax increase on Chilean companies, over protests by the Chilean government of President Aníbal Pinto that the border treaty did not allow such increase. When the Antofagasta Nitrate & Railway Company refused to pay, the Bolivian government threatened to confiscate its property. Chile responded by sending a warship to the area in December 1878. Bolivia announced the seizure and auction of the company for February 14 1879. Chile in turn threatened that such action would render the border treaty null and void. On the day of the auction, 200 Chilean troops arrived, disembarked and occupied the port city of Antofagasta without a fight.

Now facing a territorial issue, Bolivia declared war on March 1 1879 and invoked its secret alliance with Peru: the Defensive Treaty of 1873Defensive alliance treaty of 1873 between Bolivia and Peru (Tratado de alianza defensiva de 1873 entre Bolivia y Perú, in Spanish). The Peruvian government was determined to honor its alliance with Bolivia to contain what they perceived as Chile's expansionist ambitions in the region, but was concerned that Allied forces were not in shape to face the Chilean Army; a peaceful resolution was preferred. Peru attempted to mediate by sending a top diplomat to negotiate with the Chilean government. Chile requested neutrality and Peru declined, citing the now public treaty with Bolivia. Chile responded by breaking diplomatic contact and formally declaring war on both Allies on April 5 1879. Peru thus found itself drawn into the war in spite of not being a party to the original dispute.

Argentina was invited to join the Alliance. Since it had a territorial dispute with Chile regarding the region of Patagonia, and was also wary of Chilean position, its entry in the war seemed possible and would have provided an advantage to the Allies. Argentina, however, decided to pursue a peaceful settlement to its own separate dispute and did not join the war.

The War

Bolivia, after several short-lived governments, stood unprepared to face the Chilean Army by itself. From the beginning of the war it became clear that, in a difficult desert war, control of the sea would provide the deciding factor. Bolivia had no navy and Peru faced an economic collapse that left its navy and army without proper training or budget. Most of its warships were old and unable to face battle, leaving only the ironclads Huáscar and Independencia ready. In contrast, Chile although in the middle of his own economic crises was better prepared counting on its modern navy supplemented a well-trained and equipped army.

The Battle of Topáter, on 23 March 1879 was the first of the war. On their way to occupy Calama, 554 Chilean troops and cavalry were opposed by 135 Bolivian soldiers and civilian residents led by Dr. Ladislao Cabrera, dug in at two destroyed bridges; calls to surrender were rejected before and during the battle. Outnumbered and low on ammunition, most of the Bolivian force withdrew, except for a small group of civilians led by Colonel Eduardo Abaroa, that fought to the end.

Further ground battles would not take place until the war at sea was resolved.

Naval Campaign

Under the direction of Rear Admiral Juan Williams, the Chilean Navy and its powerful battleships — Almirante Cochrane and Blanco Encalada — started to operate on the Bolivian and Peruvian coast. The port of Iquique was blockaded, while Huanillos, Mollendo, Pica and Pisagua were bombarded and port facilities burned. Rear Admiral Williams hoped that, by disrupting commerce and especially saltpeter exports or weapons imports, the Allies' war effort would be weakened and the Peruvian Navy would be forced into a decisive showdown.

The smaller, but effective, Peruvian Navy did not oblige. Under the command of Captain Miguel Grau aboard Huáscar, Peru staged a series of blockade runs and harassment raids deep into Chilean waters. The plan was to disrupt Chilean operations, draw the enemy fleet back to the South while avoiding at all costs a fight against superior forces; as a consequence the Chilean invasion would be delayed, the Allies would be free to supply and reinforce their troops along the coast, and weapons would still flow into Peru from the North.

The Naval Battle of Chipana, the first of the war at sea, took place off Huanillos on 12 April 1879, as Peruvian corvettes Unión and Pilcomayo found Chilean corvette Magallanes on its way to Iquique. After a two-hour running artillery duel, Unión suffered engine problems; the pursuit was called off and Magallanes escaped with minor damage.

In the Naval Battle of Iquique of 21 May 1879, Peruvian ships Huáscar and Independencia lifted the blockade of Iquique by Esmeralda and Covadonga, two of Chile's oldest wooden vessels. Huáscar sank Esmeralda, while Covadonga forced the larger Independencia to run aground at Punta Gruesa (some historians consider this a different engagement and call it the Battle of Punta Gruesa).

The Chilean Navy lost a wooden corvette and elevated Captain Arturo Prat of Esmeralda as a martyr to their cause: he led a handful of sailors in boarding the ironclad. The Peruvian Navy lost a powerful ironclad frigate and saw Captain Miguel Grau's renown grow among friend and foe as a result of his actions: he rescued the survivors of Esmeralda after the battle and wrote condolences to the widow of Captain Prat. Significantly, Huáscar remained the only Peruvian vessel capable of holding off the invasion.

For six months, the Huáscar roamed the seas and effectively cut off the Chilean supply lines. In an impressive display of naval mastery, Captain Grau was able to hold off the entire Chilean Navy, recover captured Peruvian vessels and severely damage many ports used by the Chilean Navy. These actions are known as the "Correrías del Huáscar" (Huáscar's Exploits) and as a result Grau was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral. A brief listing of these actions include:

Damaged ports of Cobija, Tocopilla, Platillos and Mejillones, Huanillos, Punta de Lobo, Chanaral, Huasco, Caldera, Coquimbo & Tatal
Sank 16 Chilean vessels
Damaged Chilean vessels Blanco Encalada, Abtao, Magallanes, and Matías Cousiño
Captured Chilean vessels Emilia, Adelaida Rojas, E. Saucy Jack, Adriana Lucía, Rimac, and Coquimbo
Recovered Peruvian vessels Clorinda and Caquetá
Destroyed artillery batteries of Antofagasta
Destroyed Antofagasta-Valparaiso communications cable

It took the Chilean Navy a full day of sailing with six ships in order to corner the Húascar, and then, nearly two hours of bloody combat with their vessels Blanco Encalada, Covadonga and Cochrane to cause her to founder with 76 artillery hits in the Naval Battle of Angamos on 8 October 1879. The dead included Admiral Grau.

With the capture of Huáscar, the naval campaign was over. With the exception of local skirmishes, Chile would control the sea for the duration of the war.

Land Campaign and Invasion

Having gained control of the sea, the Chilean Army started the invasion of Peru. Bolivia, unable to recover the Litoral province, joined the Peruvian defence of Tarapacá and Tacna.

On 2 November 1879, naval bombardment and amphibious assaults were carried out at the small port of Pisagua and the Junín Cove –some 500 Km North of Antofagasta. At Pisagua, several landing waves totalling 2,100 troops attacked beach defenses held by 1,160 Allies and took the town; the landing at Junín was smaller and almost unsuccessful. By the end of the day, General Erasmo Escala and a Chilean army of 10,000 were ashore and moving inland, isolating the province of Tarapacá from the rest of Peru and cutting off General Juan Buendía's 1st Southern Army from reinforcements.

Marching south towards the city of Iquique with 6,000 troops, the Chilean Army held off a sudden 7,400-strong Allied counterattack at the Battle of San Francisco on 19 November, with high casualties to both sides. The Bolivian force withdrew during the battle, forcing the Peruvian Army to retreat to the city of Tarapacá. Four days later, the Chilean Army captured Iquique with little resistance.

Escala sent a detachment of 3,600 soldiers, cavalry and artillery to wipe out the rest of the Peruvian Army, estimated at fewer than 2,000 poorly trained and demoralized men. The Battle of Tarapacá, on 27 November, took place as the Chilean attack found the Peruvian force in better morale and at almost double the number expected. Led by Colonel Andrés Cáceres, the Peruvian Army routed the Chilean expedition, which left behind significant quantities of supplies and ammunition. The Peruvian victory at Tarapacá would have little impact on the war. General Buendía's army, down to 4,000, retreated further north to Arica by 18 December.

A new Chilean expedition left Pisagua and on 24 February 1880 disembarked nearly 12,000 soldiers at Pacocha Bay. Commanded by General Manuel Baquedano, this force isolated the provinces of Tacna and Arica destroying any practical hope for reinforcements from Peru.

On 7 June some 4,000 Chilean forces backed by the Navy successfully attacked a Peruvian garrison in Arica, which was under the command of Colonel Francisco Bolognesi. Chilean forces, directed by Colonel Pedro Lagos, had to run up the Morro de Arica (a steep and tall seaside hill) facing 2,000 Peruvian troops commanded by Colonel Bolognesi.

The assault became known as the Battle of Arica, which turned out to be one of the most tragic and at the same time the most emblematic event of the war: Chile suffered 474 mortal casualties, while almost 1,000 Peruvians lost their lives, including Colonel Bolognesi himself who resisted heroically to the bitter end.

Other high ranking Peruvian officers who also perished were Colonel Alfonso Ugarte (who purportedly jumped off the cliff on his horse to mislead pursuing Chilean troops down into the underlying Pacific ocean), and Colonel Mariano Bustamante, his Chief of Detail. These three Peruvian officers belonged to the group that on the eve of the battle had gallantly rejected an offer to surrender the garrison to the Chilean army, and prompted Colonel Bolognesi to vow to the Chilean emissary that he was to defend the garrison to the last shot.

Since the Morro de Arica was the last bulwark of defence for the allied troops standing in the city, its occupation by Chile has been of utmost historical relevance for both countries.

In October 1880, the United States unsuccessfully mediated in the conflict aboard USS Lackawanna at Arica Bay, attempting to end the war with diplomacy. Representatives from Chile, Peru, and Bolivia met to discuss the territorial disputes, yet both Peru and Bolivia rejected the loss of their territories to Chile and abandoned the conference. By January 1881, the Chilean Army marched towards the Peruvian capital, Lima.

Regular Peruvian army and poorly armed citizens set up to defend Lima. However, Peruvian forces were defeated in the battles of San Juan and Miraflores, and the city of Lima fell in January 1881 to the forces of General Baquedano. The southern suburbs of Lima, including the upscale beach area of Chorrillos, were sacked and burned to the ground.

The outlying haciendas were burned down by Chinese coolies who had been brought in from South China since the early 1850's for cheap labor at the haciendas. (Chilean historians claim that the Chilean troops entered Lima to prevent looting and destruction after the collapse of authority there; historical records show that those same Chilean forces were responsible for the looting and destruction.)

Occupation of Peru

With little effective Peruvian central government remaining, Chile pursued an ambitious campaign throughout Peru, especially on the coast and the central Sierra, penetrating as far north as Cajamarca. Remarkably, even in these circumstances, Chile was not able to completely subjugate Peru. As war booty, Chile confiscated the contents of the Peruvian National Library from Lima and transported thousands of books (including many centuries-old original Spanish, Peruvian and Colonial volumes) to Santiago de Chile, along with much capital stock.

Peruvian resistance continued for three more years, with apparent U.S. encouragement. The leader of the resistance was General Andrés Cáceres (nicknamed the Warlock of the Andes), who would later be elected president of Peru. The remnants of the Peruvian Army led by Cáceres defeated Chilean Army units on several occasions, but after the loss in the Battle of Huamachuco, there was little further resistance. Finally, on 20 October 1883, Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancón, by which Tarapacá province was forcefully ceded to the victor.

Characteristics of the War

Strategic control of the sea

The war theatre between 1879 and 1881 was a large expanse of desert, sparsely populated and far removed from major cities or resource centers; it is, however, close to the Pacific Ocean. It was clear from the beginning that control of the sea would be the key to an inevitably difficult desert war: supply by sea, including water, food, ammunition, horses, fodder and reinforcements, was quicker and easier than marching supplies through the desert or the Bolivian high plateau.

While the Chilean Navy started an economic and military blockade of the Allies' ports, Peru took the initiative and utilized its smaller but effective navy as a raiding force. Chile was forced to delay the ground invasion for six months, and to shift its fleet from blockading to hunting Huáscar until she was captured.

With the advantage of naval supremacy, Chilean ground strategy focused on mobility: landing ground forces into enemy territory to raid Allied ground assets; landing in strength to split and drive out defenders; leaving garrisons to guard territory as the war moved north. Peru and Bolivia fought a defensive war: maneuvering along long overland distances; relying where possible on land or coastal fortifications with gun batteries and minefields; coastal railways were available to Peru, and telegraph lines provided a direct line to the government in Lima. When retreating, Allied forces made sure that little if any assets remained to be used by the enemy.

Sea mobile forces proved to be, in the end, an advantage for desert warfare on a long coastline. Defenders found themselves hundreds of kilometers away from home; invading forces were usually a few kilometers away from the sea.

Occupation, resistance and attrition

The occupation of Peru between 1881 and 1884 was a different story altogether. The war theatre was the Peruvian Sierra, where Peruvian resistance had easy access to population, resource and supply centers further away from the sea; it could carry out a war of attrition indefinitely. The Chilean Army, turned occupation force, was split into small garrisons across the theatre and could devote only part of its strength to hunting down rebels without a central authority.

After a costly occupation and prolonged anti-insurgency campaign, Chile sought to achieve a political exit strategy. Rifts within Peruvian society provided such an opportunity after the Battle of Huamachuco, and resulted in the peace treaty that ended the occupation and the war.

Participation of Chinese immigrants

According to Hong Kong Asia Television programme "Stories of Chinese Afar III", there were about 2000 Chinese workers participating on the Chilean side. Their roles were spoofing as working with the Peruvians to acquire intelligence, act as back-end support or to initiate a sudden attack to the Peruvian army.

Technology

The war saw the use by both sides of new, or recently introduced, military technology such as breech-loading rifles, remote-controlled land mines, armour-piercing shells, torpedoes, torpedo boats and purpose-built landing craft. Second-generation ironclads (i.e. designed after the Battle of Hampton Roads) were faced in battle for the first time. This was significant for a conflict where a major power was not directly involved, and drew the attention of British, French and U.S. observers of the time.

During the war, Peru developed the Toro Submarino ("Submarine Bull"). Though completely operational, it never saw action, and was scuttled at the end of the war to prevent its capture by the victors.

Aftermath

Peace terms

Under the terms of the Treaty of Ancón, Chile was to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica for 10 years, after which a plebiscite was to be held to determine their nationality. The two countries failed for decades to agree on the terms of the plebiscite. Finally in 1929, through the mediation of the United States under President Herbert Hoover, an accord was reached by which Chile kept Arica; Peru reacquired Tacna and received $6 million indemnity and other concessions.

In 1884, Bolivia signed a truce that gave control to Chile of the entire Bolivian coast, the province of Antofagasta, and its valuable nitrate, copper and other mineral deposits. A treaty in 1904 made this arrangement permanent. In return Chile agreed to build a railroad connecting the Bolivian capital of La Paz with the port of Arica and guaranteed freedom of transit for Bolivian commerce through Chilean ports and territory.

Long-term consequences

The War of the Pacific left traumatic scars on Bolivian and Peruvian society.

For Bolivians, the loss of the territory which they refer to as the litoral (Spanish for "littoral," the coast) remains a deeply emotional issue and a practical one, as was particularly evident during the internal natural gas riots of 2004. Popular belief attributes much of the country's problems to its landlocked condition; conversely, recovering the seacoast is seen as the solution to most of these. In 1932, this was a contributing factor to the Chaco War with Paraguay, over territory controlling access to the Atlantic Ocean through the Paraguay River. In recent decades, all Bolivian Presidents have made it their policy to pressure Chile for sovereign access to the sea. Diplomatic relations with Chile have been severed since 17 March 1978, in spite of considerable commercial ties. Currently, the leading Bolivian newspaper "El Diario" ^* still features at least a weekly editorial on the subject.

Peruvians developed a cult for the heroic defenders of the patria (nation, literally fatherland), such as Admiral Miguel Grau, Colonel Francisco Bolognesi who were killed in the war, and General Andrés Cáceres who went on to become a leading political figure and symbol of resistance to the occupying Chilean Army. The defeat engendered a deep inferiority complex among the ruling classes, which also led to a skewed view of the role of the armed forces, which dominated society throughout the 20th century.

Chile fared better, gaining a lucrative territory with major sources of income, including nitrates, saltpeter and copper. Victory was, however, a mixed blessing. During the war Chile waived most of its claim over Patagonia in 1881 to ensure Argentina's neutrality; Chilean popular belief sees this as a territorial loss. British involvement and control of the nitrate industry rose significantly after the warFoster, John B. & Clark, Brett. (2003). "Ecological Imperialism: The Curse of Capitalism" (accessed September 2 2005). The Socialist Register 2004, p190-192. Also available in print from Merlin Press., leading them to meddle in Chilean politics and ultimately to back an overthrow of the Chilean President in 1891. High nitrate profits lasted for only a few decades and fell sharply once synthetic nitrates were developed during World War I. Currently, the region is still the world largest source of copper and its ports move trade between nearby countries and the Pacific Ocean.

The war consolidated the Chilean Navy as an institution, as the War of Independence and the 1836 War against the Santa Cruz confederation consolidated the Chilean Army. After many years during which it had been considered an irrelevant and unimportant item on Chilean budget, the Chilean Navy gained an important squadron and became a significant power on the Pacific Ocean, with the cruiser Esmeralda, the fastest vessel of its time. A strong class of naval officials also emerged from the war, most of them descendants of immigrants and not related to Santiago's circle of power; this class played a role in the plot against president José Manuel Balmaceda in 1891.

Prominent military commanders

Bolivia

Mr. Eduardo Abaroa †, an engineer, was killed leading a group of civilian defenders at the Battle of Topater
General Narciso Campero, military President of Bolivia (1880-1884)
General Hilarión Daza, military President of Bolivia (1876-1879)

Chile

General Manuel Baquedano, commander in chief of the Chilean Army
Captain Ignacio Carrera †, killed with the entire garrison at the Battle of La Concepción
Rear Admiral Patricio Lynch, military Governor of occupied Peru
Captain Arturo Prat †, was killed while boarding Huáscar at the Battle of Iquique

Peru

Colonel Francisco Bolognesi †, was killed while leading the defense of the Arica garrison
General Andrés Cáceres, led the guerilla war during the occupation of Peru, was elected President of Peru after the war
Rear Admiral Miguel Grau †, commander of Huáscar and widely known as the knight of the seas, was killed at the Naval Battle of Angamos
Colonel Leoncio Prado †, the son of former President Mariano Ignacio Prado, chose duty as a soldier over an oath not to fight, was captured and executed by a Chilean firing squad after the Battle of Huamachuco
Colonel Alfonso Ugarte †, Bolognesi's top lieutenant, was killed during the Battle of Arica, believed to have jumped off a cliff on his horse to save the flag from capture

Other nationalities

Rear Admiral Abel Bergasse Dupetit-Thouars, French commander, After the Battle of Miraflores, he prevented the destruction and looting of Lima by threatening to engage and destroy the Chilean Navy with a multinational force under his command
Colonel Robert Souper Howard †, British soldier who served in the Chilean Army in nearly every battlefield of the war, was killed at the Battle of San Juan
Lt. Colonel Roque Saenz Peña, Argentinian soldier who served in the Peruvian Army during the battles of Tarapaca and Arica, was later elected President of Argentina

References

External links

The United States and the Bolivian Seacoast Online book by Bolivian historian and diplomat Jorge Gumucio Granier
Clear brief account of causes and consequences of the War of the Pacific, 1879-1883.
La Guerra del Pacífico, Los Héroes Olvidados Chilean site (in Spanish)
History of Chemical Engineering: Nitrogen, for a brief description nitrates and its strategic importance
Sin mar… hare 126 años ("Without Sea…for 126 years"); page about the war and its impact on Bolivian society (in Spanish).
WikiProyecto Guerra del Pacífico (Wikipedia en español)

History of South America | Wars of Bolivia | Wars of Chile | Wars of Peru | War of the Pacific

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