Vijayanagara Empire

Vijayanagar Empire during Deva Raya II (1446 CE.) and Krishnadevaraya (1520 CE.), Nayakas of Shimoga, Madurai and Chitradurga.

**Vijayanagara Empire**
Official languages	Kannada Telugu
Capitals	Early Capital: Anegondi, Regal Capital: Vijayanagara
Government	Monarchy
Preceding states	Hoysala, Kakatiya
Succeeding states	Kingdom of Mysore, Vijayanagar Empire in Penugonda,

The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. It was founded by Harihara, also known as Hakka, and his brother Bukka Raya. It is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, whose impressive ruins surround Hampi in modern Karnataka, India. It lasted from about 1336 to perhaps about 1660, though throughout its last century it was in a slow decline due to a massive and catastrophic defeat at the hands of an alliance of the sultanates, and the capital was taken and brutally razed and looted. Its foundation, and even great part of its history, is obscure; but its power and wealth are attested by more than one European traveller, such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian Niccolò Da Conti.

Founding

The founding of the original kingdom was based on the principality of Anegondi, based on a fortified town on the Tungabhadra river in the Deccan. In the century preceding the founding of the empire, the old kingdoms of the Deccan had been overrun by Muslim invaders from the north. From 1309, Malik Kafur reached and captured Warangal, later on reaching the Malabar kingdoms. Mubarak of Delhi reached Warangal again in 1323. Between 1334 and 1336, Muhammad Tughlaq of Delhi again overran the region, capturing Anegondi.

Many theories have been propounded about the genesis of the empire. Well known historians from Archeological Survey of India hold their own opinions about the origin of the empire. Prof. K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, Dr. N. Ventakaramanayya and B. Surya Narayana Rao claim a Telugu origin of Harihara and Bukka Raya. However, historians such as Dr. P.B. Desai, Dr. Henry Heras and Prof. Dr. B.A. Saletore attest to the empire's Kannada origin.

Historian Robert Sewell cites Buchanan and gives the following account: Buchanan ("Mysore," & c., iii. 110), while on a visit to Beidur in Mysore in 1801, was shown by one Ramappa Varmika a Sanskrit book in his possession called the Vidyaranya Sikka, which relates that the founders of Vijayanagar were Hukka and Bukka, guards of the treasury of Pratapa Rudra of Warangal. These young men came to the Guru, or spiritual teacher, Vidyaranya, who was head of the monastery of Sringeri, and the latter founded for them the city of Vijayanagar. This was in 1336, and Hukka was made first king.

Dr. B.A. Saletore in his book, Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (University of London 1931) proves the Kannada origin of the empire. In his research he used literary and numismatic evidence.

Dr. P.B Desai in his work History of Vijayanagar Empire 1936 asserts that the theory of capture of Harihara and Bukka by the Sultan of Delhi and conversion to Islam is false and that the testimony of epigraphs proves that the area around Hampi constituted their homeland. He asserts that the empire never had a Telugu origin. According to Dr. P.B. Desai, the patron saint of the early kings was saint Vidyaranya, the 12th Shankaracharya of Sringeri in Karnataka and this is proof enough of their unquestionable identity with the Kannada country.

However, many Muslim historians wrote at length about the capture of "Hariap" and "Bukarao" and their conversion to Islam in Delhi (Sewell).

According to G.S. Gai, chief government epigraphist (ASI), almost half of the Vijayanagar inscriptions are in Kannada and have surnames like Bhashegetappuva - rayara - ganda and Rayamoovara - ganda in Kannada.

Well known historian K. Appadurai sums it up in his article The Place of Kannada and Tamil in Indias National culture (INTAMM 1997) "The Karnataka Empire or Vijayanagar Empire embraced in its ample fold all of Karnataka and Andhra, all Tamilnadu and perhaps parts of northern Kerala and even extended into the Utkal or Orissa region. But as its name implies, it was originally of the Karnataka country and it drew its inspirations from the Hoysalas and the Gangas of the Karnataka and the Cholas and Pandyas of the Tamil country. But it is chiefly remarkable in raising above all regionalism and in creating the all India nationalism of to-day in all of its spheres of activities".

Their claims is supported by other findings. Lord Chennakeshava of Belur and Lord Virupaksha of Hampi were the family gods of the Sangama clan. Also, they claim that in political and administrative matters, the Vijayanagar kings followed the Hoysala framework. They also mention that where as the Sangama brothers had to wage war against the Reddy's of Kondavidu and Velamas of Rachakonda in Telugu country, Gajapathis of Orissa, chieftens of Madhuri and Quilon etc., the entire area that constituted the Hoysala kingdom came under the rule of the Sangama brothers without any clash for power. This would not have been possible unless the Sangama brothers were local to Hampi and of Kannada origin. Historically, it is also known the Sangama dynasty was followed by the Saluva and Tuluva dynasties who hailed from Coastal Karnataka.

After the demise of Musunuri Kaapaya Nayaka, Reddys of Kondavidu and Velamas of Rachakonda asserted their independence thus bringing them into natural conflict with Vijayanagar kings whose sole aim was to consolidate Hindu opposition to alien dharma. Velamas colluded with Bahmanis to save their territories thus making them enemies of Vijayanagar. It was Krishnadeva Raya who vanquished Reddys and Velamas and unified the South.

A popular account (supported by Department Of Tourism, Govt. Of India, copyright 2003 Eicher Goodearth Ltd. New Delhi) says that the Hampi region was part of a tiny kingdom of Kampili in the 14th Century AD when large parts of north India was under Muslim rule. In 1326 AD Mohammed Bin Tughluq defeated and killed the king of Kampili. Among those taken prisoner were sons of Sangama, Hukka and Bukka, both treasury officers of Kampili, who were forced to convert to Islam. History has it that the governors of Hoysala, Singeya Nayaka-III (1280 - 1300) declared independence and formed the kingdom of Kampili around 1280 AD. The kingdom faced constant threat from the powerful kingdom of Hoysalas and Yadavas. But in 1327 AD, the Muslim expedition took toll of Yadavas and the kingdom of Kampiladeva as well and opened up routes for the Muslim rulers.

However, Robert Sewell concluded that Harihara and Bukka were treasury officers of Golla/Kuruba caste, in the court of Warangal (Kakatiya Empire). Some years later the sultan sent the two brothers back to put down the rebellion of Hoyasala king. They succeeded but laid foundation of an independent kingdom (1336 AD), with the help of sage Vidyaranya, denying any allegiance to the Tughluqs and became Hindus again. They laid foundation to the Sangama dynsaty with its citadel in Vijayanagara.

Another story avers that the hermit Vidyarnya himself founded the city after the discovery of a hidden treasure, ruled over it himself, and left it after his death to a Kuruba family who established the first regular dynasty. + Many other stories add intrigue and mystery to the founding of the Empire but with lack of epigraphal support.

A fourth account states that while Vidyaranya was living his ascetic life amongst the mountains he was supported by meals brought to him by a shepherd of Kuruba caste called Bukka, "and one day the Brahmin said to him, 'You shall be king and emperor of all Bharata.' The other shepherds learned this, and began to treat this shepherd with veneration and made him their head; and he acquired the name of 'king,' and began to conquer his neighbours. Bukka established a city "and called it Vijaya Nagar – the city of victory . As Muhammud Tughlaq's rule ended amidst revolts against him by his Muslim subjects in the Deccan, the area ruled by Harihara expanded greatly and quickly. The city of Vijayanagara was established by about 1340 on the bank of the Tungabhadra opposite Anegondi.

Harihara was succeeded, probably around 1343, by his brother, Bukka Raya, who ruled till about 1379. By the end of Bukka's reign, most of southern India to the south of the Tungabhadra had accepted his suzerainity.

To sum up, unless new evidence is discovered the exact origin and ancestry of Vijayanagar founders will remain a controversial matter.

The empire at its peak

In the following two centuries, the Vijayanagar empire dominated all of southern India, and was probably stronger than any other power in the subcontinent. The empire during that period served as a bulwark against invasion from the Turkic Sultanates of the Indo-Gangetic Plain; and remained in constant competition and conflict with the five Deccan Sultanates that established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it. It remained a land power.

In about 1510, Goa, which had been under the rule of the Sultan of Bijapur, was captured by the Portuguese, possibly with the approval or connivance of Vijayanagara. Commerce between the Portuguese and Vijayanagara became very important to both sides.

The empire is generally considered to have reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya. He conquered or subjugated territories on the east of the Deccan that belonged previously to Orissa. Many of the great monuments of the empire date from his time. Among these are the Hazara Rama temple, the Krishna temple and the Ugra Narasimha idol, all at Vijayanagara.

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by Achyuta Raya in 1530. In 1542, Achyuta was succeeded by Sada Siva Raya. But the real power lay with Rama (of the third dynasty, who followed him), who seems to have made a point of unnecessarily provoking the Deccan sultanates, so that eventually they allied against him. In 1565, at the Battle of Talikota, the army of Vijayanagara was routed by an alliance of the Deccan sultanates. Rama Raya was killed and his head annually covered with oil and red pigment was exhibited in Ahmednagar till 1829. With this, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagar with treasure on back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. Please refer to Robert Sewell's excellent research on Vijayanagar ^*

Vijayanagara is considered by many today, especially in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, to have been a golden age of culture and learning.

Inscriptions

Kannada and Telugu inscriptions deciphered and recorded by historians of Archeological Survey of India - South Indian Inscriptions (vol 9, 15,16, 17 & 18)

The Haridasa Movement and the Empire

The Haridasa movement presented, like the Virashaiva movement, another strong current of Bhakthi, pervading the lives of millions. Thus the Haridasas presented two groups – Vyasakuta and Dasakuta. The former were required to be proficient in the Vedas, Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhwacharya through Kannada language to the people. The philosophy of Madhwacharya was preserved and perpetuated by his eminent disciples like Vyasatirtha or Vyasaraja, Naraharitirtha, Padmanabha Tirtha, Akshobhya Tirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and others. In the fifteenth century, the Haridasa movement took shape under Sripadaraya of Mulbagal; but his disciple Vyasatirtha provided it a strong organizational base. He was intimately associated with the Vijayanagar Empire, where he became a great moral and spiritual force. His eminent disciples were Sri Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa. Vyasathirtha was the guru of Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire.

Kannada Literature

Kannada literature took a strong Hindu bend with the orthodox Vijayanagara kings. Some eminent names were Kumara Vyasa, Narahari, BhimaKavi, Padmanaka, Mallanarya, Singiraja and Chamarasa. Kumar Vyasa wrote Gadugina Bharata which was completed by Timmanna Kavi, Narahari wrote Torave Ramayana. Other important works were Bhagavatha by Vittalanatha, Nala Charite, Haribhakthisara, Mohana Tarangini and Ramadhanya Charitre by the saint Kanakadasa, Dasa Sahithya and Keerthanas by Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa, Bharatesha Vaibhava and Triloka Sataka, Maggeya Mayideva, and Someswara Sataka of Ratnakarvarni, Prabhulinga Leele of Chamarasa and Kumara Rama Charita of Nanjunda, Kereya Padmarasa's Padmaraja Purana, Lakkana Dandesa's Shivatatwa Chintamani, BhimaKavi's Basavapurana, Mallanarya's Veerasaivamrita, Mangaraja wrote Khagendra-Mani-Darpana, a work on poisons and antidotes. Kanakadasa's Ramadhanya Charitre is considered a unique work on class struggle. The Vijayanagar period continued the ancient tradition of Kannada literature.

Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit literature was given patronage by the Vijayanagar kings. Some important works from this period were Sayana's Vedartha Prakasha, Yajnatantra Sudhanidhi, Prayaschitra Sudhanidhi and Purushartha Sudhanidhi, Madhva Vidyaranya, the spiritual force behind the empire wrote Parasara – Madhaviya, Devanna Bhatta wrote Smriti Chandrika, Gangadevi, a Poetess wrote , Madhura Vijayam, Tirumalamba Devi also a poetess wrote Varadambika Parinayam. Krishnadevaraya himself an accomplished scholar wrote Madalasa Charita, Satyavadu Parinaya and Rasamanjari.

Architecture

The architecture of Vijayanagar Empire is considered by many historians as a vibrant combination of Chalukya, Hoysala and Dravida styles. The hallmark of their architecture was the ornate pillared Kalyana Mantapa. While their monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air museum of monumnets at their regal capital at Hampi. Up to about 1450AD, the kings continued to build Vesara or deccan style monuments but later also incorporated more dravida style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. At Hampi, though the Vittala temple is the epitome of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara Ramaswamy temple is a more modest but perfectly finished example of this style. Vijayanagar temples of Bhatkal, and other towns of coastal Karnataka, Kanakagiri, Sringeri in interior Karnataka, Tadapatri and Lepakshi in AndhraPradesh, Velluru, Kumbhakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are also great examples of their style. Some structures in Hampi also exhibit secular architecture with mixing of Hindu and Islamic styles.

Coinage

The Empire minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Telugu legends, usually giving the name of the ruler. The empire had its mints in Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupathi. Gold, silver and copper were used to make coins. Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital were the various coins issued in the Vijayanagar period The most beautiful Vijayanagar coins were those with the images of various gods and goddesses and animals and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and the Garuda (divine eagle), the mount of Lord Vishnu. The Vijayanagar rulers also issued gold coins featuring divine couples. Venkatapatiraya III, one of the last Vijayanagar rulers, minted coins showing Vishnu with Sridevi and Bhudevi. Krishnadevaraya issued many coins featuring Balakrishna. He issued these coins after he built a Krishna Temple at Hampi and installed in it an image of Krishna that he had brought from Udayagiri after conquering it from the Gajapati ruler of Orissa. On these coins, the playful Krishna is seen seated. Lord Venkateshwara, the presiding deity of the temple at Tirumala (Tirupati), also figures on Vijayanagar coins. A rare copper coin of the Vijayanagar ruler Sriranga I shows a standing figure of the emperor with a sword in his hand. Another rare copper coin issued by Sadasivaraya shows a fully caparisoned galloping horse. The elephant and the bull too appear on many Vijayanagar coins.

A link included below depicts coins issued by each Vijayanagar ruler.

The decline

While the empire still continued to have some power, and commanded respect, it went into a considerable decline. The rulers of this period are difficult to place clearly. It is known however that they continued to trade with the Portuguese, and that they gave the British the land grant that enabled the establishment of Madras. The Telugu work Vasucharitamu refers to Tirumala, the first of the Aravidu line of rulers as the reviver of the Karnata empire. He is said to have crowned himself as king in 1570 A.D. at Penugonda (Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Empire, ASI)

Dynasties and rulers

This list is based on the book by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire).

Sangama Dynasty

Harihara I (Deva Raya) 1336-1343
Bukka I 1343-1379
Harihara II 1379-1399
Bukka II 1399-1406
Deva Raya I 1406-1412
Vira Vijaya 1412-1419
Deva Raya II 1419-1444
(unknown) 1444-1449
Mallikarjuna 1452-1465 (Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara 1468-1469 (Dates uncertain)
Virupaksha I 1470-1471 (Dates uncertain)
Praudha Deva Raya 1476-? (Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara 1479-1480 (Dates uncertain)
Virupaksha II 1483-1484 (Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara 1486-1487 (Dates uncertain)

Saluva Dynasty

Narasimha 1487-1491
Narasa Nayaka(for Narasimha II)-1491-1503
Vira Narasimha 1503-1509
Krishna Deva 1509-1530
Achyuta Deva Raya 1530-1542
Sadasiva (in name only) 1542-1567

Tuluva dynasty

Rama (ruled in practice) 1542-1565
Tirumala (ruled in practice) 1565-1567
Tirumala (crowned ruler) 1567-1575
Ranga II 1575-1586
Venkata I 1586-1614

Aravidu (dates uncertain, this information is based only on inscriptions), includes rulers by the names below. There is certainly more than one ruler under each name. The period extends from 1614 onward, till the last known reference in 1739.

Ranga
Venkata
Rama

The last known inscription referring to a monarch of his line is from 1793.

Nayakas,the other offshoots of Vijaynagar empire was the Nayakas in Karnataka and TamilNadu,who made a major impact in the later political scenes, among them the Madurai Nayaks ruled till 1734. The kingdom of Mysore lasted until Indian independence in 1947, although during the later part of their rule, from 1799 CE. onwards they came under the British Raj.