Tristan and Iseult

The legend of Tristan and Iseult is an influential romance and tragedy, retold in numerous sources with as many variations. The tragic story of the adulterous love between the Cornish knight Tristan (Tristram) and the Irish princess Iseult (Isolde, Yseut, etc.), the narrative predates and most likely influenced the Arthurian romance of Lancelot and Guinevere, and has had a substantial impact on Western art and literature since it first appeared in the 12th century. While the details of the story differ from one author to another, the overall plot structure remains much the same.

Legend

There are two main traditions of the Tristan legend. The early tradition comprised of the romances from two French poets from the second half of the twelfth century, Thomas of Britain and Béroul. Their sources could be traced back to the original, archetypal Celtic romance. Later traditions come from the Prose Tristan (c. 1240), which was markedly different from the earlier tales written by Thomas and Béroul. The Prose Tristan became the official medieval tale of Tristan and Iseult that would provide the background for the writings of Sir Thomas Malory, the English author, who wrote Le Morte d'Arthur (c. 1469).

The story and character of Tristan vary from poet to poet. Even the spelling of his name varies a great deal, though "Tristan" is the most popular spelling. In Béroul's Tristan and Yseut, the knight is as brave and fit as any other warrior, but he relies on trickery and does not live according to contemporary ideals of chivalry.

In Béroul's tale, Tristan goes to Ireland to bring back the fair Yseut for his uncle King Mark to marry. Along the way, they accidentally ingest a love potion that causes the pair to be madly in love for three years. Although Yseut marries Mark, she and Tristan are forced by the potion to seek one another out for adultery. Although the typical noble Arthurian character would be shamed from such an act, the love potion that controls them frees Tristan and Yseut from responsibility. Thus Béroul presents them as victims. The king's advisors repeatedly try to have the pair tried for adultery, but again and again the couple use trickery to preserve their façade of innocence. Eventually the love potion wears off, and the two lovers are free to make their own choice as to whether they cease their adulterous lifestyle or continue. Béroul's ending is morally ambiguous, which differs greatly from his contemporaries such as Chrétien de Troyes and adds a bit of mystique to the legend of Tristan.

Tristan migrates to Ireland from Cornwall to ask the hand of the princess Iseult of Ireland, daughter of King Anguish of Ireland, for his uncle, King Mark of Cornwall. After slaying a dragon that is devastating the country, he succeeds in betrothing the couple and is chosen to escort the princess to Cornwall. On the homeward journey, Tristan and Iseult drink a love potion that was prepared by the queen for her daughter and King Mark. Tristan and Iseult then go on to carry a liaison which lasts for many years.

As with the Arthur-Lancelot-Guinevere love triangle, Tristan, King Mark, and Iseult all hold love for each other. Tristan honors, respects, and loves King Mark as his mentor and adopted father; Iseult is grateful that Mark is kind to her, which he is certainly not obliged to be; and Mark loves Tristan as his son, and Iseult as a wife.

Tristan's uncle eventually learns of the affair and seeks to entrap his nephew and his bride. Also present is the endangerment of a fragile kingdom, the cessation of war between Ireland and Cornwall. Mark gets what seems proof of their guilt and resolves to punish them: Tristan by hanging and Iseult by trial by ordeal and then putting her up in a lazar house. Tristan escapes on his way to the stake by a miraculous leap from a chapel and rescues Iseult from the leprosy house. The lovers escape into the forest of Morrois and take shelter there until they are discovered by Mark one day. They, however, make peace with Mark after Tristan's agreement to return Iseult to Mark and leave the country. Tristan then travels on to Brittany, where he marries (for her name and her beauty) Iseult of the White Hands, daughter of Hoel of Brittany and sister of Sir Kahedin.

In works like the Prose Tristan, the Post-Vulgate Cycle, and Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, Tristan is wounded by a poisoned weapon, after battling with Iseult of Ireland's uncle Morholt (sometimes named Estult li Orgillusi). He mortally wounds Morholt, leaving a piece of his sword in the Irishman's skull, but Morholt stabs him with a poisoned spear and escapes. Tristan sends for Iseult of Ireland, who alone can heal him. Iseult of Brittany watches the window for white sails signaling that Iseult of Ireland is arriving to save Tristan's life with her herblore. She sees the white sails, but out of jealousy, tells Tristan that the sails are black, which was to be the signal that Iseult of Ireland would not come. Tristan dies, and Iseult of Ireland, arriving too late to save him, yields up her own life. In some sources it states that two trees (hazel and honeysuckle) grow out of their graves and intertwine their branches so that they can not be parted by any means. In others, it states that Iseult of Ireland sets his body to sea in a boat then disappears and is never heard from again.

A few later stories record that the lovers had a number of children. In some stories they produced a son and a daughter they named after themselves; these children survived their parents and had adventures of their own. In the romance Ysaie the Sad, the eponymous hero is the son of Tristan and Iseult; he becomes involved with the fay-king Oberon and marries a girl named Martha, who bears him a son named Mark.

Origins of the legend

Early references to Tristan and Mark in Welsh

There are many theories present about the origins of Tristanian legend, but historians disagree about the most accurate one. There is the famous Tristan stone, with its inscription about Drust, but not all historians agree that the Drust referred to is the archetype of Tristan. There are refences to March ap Meichion and Trystan in the Welsh Triads, some of the gnomic poetry, Mabinogion stories and in the late 11th century Life of St. Illtud.

Drystan's name appears as one of Arthur's advisers at the end of the Dream of Rhonabwy, an early 13th century tale in the Welsh prose collection known as the Mabinogion, and Iseult is listed along with other great men and women of Arthur's court in another, much earlier Mabinogion tale, Culhwch and Olwen. Jeffrey Gantz (translator), Culhwch and Olwen, from The Mabinogion, Penguin, November 18, 1976. ISBN 0140443223

Irish analogues

Possible Irish antecedents to the Tristan legend have received much scholarly attention. Most notable is a text called Toraigheacht Dhiarmat agus Ghrainne or The Pursuit of Diarmat and Grainne. In the story, the aging Fionn mac Cumhail takes the young princess, Grainne, to be his wife. At the betrothal ceremony, however, she falls in love with Diarmat, one of Finn's most trusted warriors. Grainne gives a sleeping potion to all present but him, eventually convincing him to elope with her. The fugitive lovers are then pursued all over Ireland by the Fianna.

Another Irish analogue is Scela Cano mac Gartnain, preserved in the 14th century Yellow Book of Lecan. In this tale, Cano is an exiled Scottish king who accepts the hospitality of King Marcan of Ui Maile. His young wife, Credd, drugs all present, and then convinces Cano to be her lover. They try to keep a tryst while at Marcan's court, but are frustrated by courtiers. Eventually Cred kills herself and Cano dies of grief.

Persian analogues

Some scholars have suggested that the 11th century Persian story Vis and Ramon may have influenced the Tristan legend.Stewart Gregory (translator), Thomas of Britain, Roman de Tristan, New York: Garland Publishers, 1991. ISBN 0824040341

Classical antecedents

Some scholars believe that Ovid's Pyramus and Thisbe, as well as the story of Ariande at Naxos might have also contributed to the development of the Tristan legend. The sequence in which Tristan and Iseult die and become interwoven trees also parallels Ovid's love story of Baucis and Philemon in which two lovers are transformed in death into two different trees sprouting from the same trunk.

Association with King Arthur

In its early stages, the tale was probably unrelated to contemporary Arthurian literature, but the earliest surviving versions already incorporate references to Arthur and his court. The connection between Tristan and Iseult and the Arthurian legend was expanded over time, and sometime shortly after the completion of the Vulgate Cycle (or Lancelot-Grail Cycle) in the first quarter of the 13th century, two authors created the vast Prose Tristan, which fully establishes Tristan as a Knight of the Round Table who even participates in the Quest for the Holy Grail.

Early medieval Tristan literature

The Courtly Branch

The earliest representation of what scholars name the "courtly" version of the Tristan legend is in the work of Thomas of Britain. Only eight substantial fragments of his Tristan poem were located, scattered across a diffuse number of European libraries. In his text, Thomas names another trouvere who also sang of Tristan, though no manuscripts of this earlier version have been discovered. There is also a fascinating passage telling how Iseult wrote a short lai out of grief that sheds light on the development of an unrelated legend concerning the death of a prominent troubadour, as well as the composition of lais by noblewomen of the twelth century.

The next essential text for our knowledge of the courtly branch of the Tristan legend is that written by Brother Robert at the request of King Haakon Haakonson of Norway in 1227. King Haakon had wanted to promote Angevin-Norman culture at his court, and so commissioned the translation of several French Arthurian works. The Nordic version presents a complete, direct narrative of the events in Thomas' Tristan, with the telling omission of his numerous interpretive diversions. It is the only complete representative of the courtly branch in its formative period. P. Schach, The Saga of Tristram and Isond, University of Nebraska Press, 1973 Preceding the work of Brother Robert chronologically is the Tristan and Isolt of Gottfried von Strassburg, written circa 1211-1215. The poem was Gottfried's only known work, and was left incomplete due to his death with the retelling reaching half-way through the main plot. The poem was later completed by authors such as Heinrich von Freiberg and Ulrich von Türheim, but with the "common" branch of the legend as the ideal source. Norris J. Lacy et al. Gottfried von Strassburg from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia, New York: Garland, 1991.

The Common Branch

The earliest representation of the "common branch" is Béroul's Le Roman de Tristan. The branch is so named due to its representation of an earlier non-chivalric, non-courtly, tradition of story-telling, making more mention of the Dark Ages than of the refined High Middle Ages. In this respect, they are similar to Layamon's Brut and the Persevalus. As with Thomas' works, our knowledge of Beroul's is limited. There were a few substantial fragments of his works discovered in the nineteenth century, and the rest was reconstructed from later versions. "Early French Tristan Poems", from Norris J. Lacy (editor), Arthurian Archives, Cambridge, England; Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 1998. ISBN 0824040341 The more substantial illustration of the common branch is the German version by Eilhart von Oberge. Eilhart's version was popular, but pales in comparison with the later Gottfried.

A common source

The French medievalist Joseph Bédier thought all the Tristan legends could be traced to a single original poem, adapted by Thomas of Brittany into French from an original Cornish or Breton source. He dubbed this hypothetical original the "Ur-Tristan", and wrote his still popular Romance of Tristan and Iseult as an attempt to reconstruct what this might have been like. In all likelihood, Common Branch versions reflect an earlier form of the story; accordingly, Bédier relied heavily on Einhart and Béroul, and incorporated material from other versions to make a cohesive whole. Scholars still consider Bédier's argument convincing.

Later medieval versions

French

Contemporary with Béroul and Thomas, the famous Marie de France presents a Tristan episode in one of her lais: the Lai de Chevrefueil. It concerns another of Tristan's clandestine returns to Cornwall in which the banished hero signals his presence to Iseut by means of an inscription on a branch of a hazelnut tree placed on the road she will travel. The title refers to the symbiosis of the honeysuckle and hazelnut tree which die when separated, as do Tristan and Iseut: "Ni moi sans vous, ni vous sans moi." This episode is reminscient of one in the courtly branch when Tristan uses wood shavings put in a stream as signals to meet in the garden of Mark's palace.

There are also two 12th century "Folie Tristan", Anglo-Norman poems identified as the Oxford and the Bern versions, which relate Tristan's return to Marc's court under the guise of a madman. Besides their own importance as episodic additions to the Tristan story and masterpieces of narrative structure, these relatively short poems significantly contributed to restoring the missing parts of Beroul's and Thomas' incomplete texts.Norris J. Lacy (editor) Arthurian Archives: Early French Tristan Poems. Cambridge (England); Rochester, NY : D.S. Brewer, 1998. ISBN 0824040341

After Béroul and Thomas, the most important development in French Tristaniana is a complex grouping of texts known broadly as the Prose Tristan. The narratives of these lengthy versions vary in detail from manuscript to manuscript. The 'Roman de Tristan en prose' had a great influence on later medieval literature, and inspired parts of the Post-Vulgate Cycle, the Roman de Palamedes, and Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur.

The great tovere Chrétien de Troyes claims to have written a Tristan story, though no part of it has ever been found. He mentions this in the introduction to Cliges, a romance that many see as a kind of anti-Tristan with a happy ending. Some scholars speculate his Tristan was ill-received, prompting Chretien to write Cliges - a story with no Celtic antecedent - to make amends. N. J. Lacy (et al.). Cliges from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York : Garland Publishing, 1991.

English

The earliest, complete source of the Tristan material in English was Sir Tristram, a romance of some 3344 lines written circa 1300. It is preserved in the famous Auchinleck manuscript at the National Library of Scotland. The narrative largely follows the courtly tradition. As is true with many medieval English adaptations of French Arthuriana, the poems artistic achievement can only be described as average, though some critics have tried to rehabilitate it, claiming it is a parody. Its first editor, Sir Walter Scott, provided a sixty line ending to the story, which has been printed with the romance in every subsequent edition.Alan Lupak Kalamazoo (editor) Lancelot of the Laik and Sir Tristrem. Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications. 1994.

The only other medieval handling of the Tristan legend in English is Sir Thomas Malory's Romance of Tristan in Le Morte d'Arthur. Since the Winchester manuscript surfaced in 1934, there has been much scholarly debate whether the Tristan narrative, like all the episodes in Le Morte d'Arthur, were originally intended to be an independent piece or part of a larger work.

Scandinavia

The popularity of Brother Robert's version spawned an unique parody, Saga Af Tristram ok Ísodd as well as poem Tristrams kvæði. In the collection of Old Norse prose-translations of Marie de France's lais—called Strengleikar (Stringed Instruments)— two lais with Arthurian content have been preserved, one of the them being the "Chevrefueil", translated as "Geitarlauf."

By the nineteenth century, scholars had found Tristan legends spread across the Nordic world, from Denmark to the Faroe Islands. These stories, however, diverged greatly from their medieval precursors. In one Danish ballad, for instance, Tristan and Iseult are made brother and sister. Other unlikely inovations occur in two popular Danish chapbooks of the late eighteenth century Tristans saga ok Inionu and En tragoedisk Historie om den ædle og tappre Tistrand, in which Iseult is made the princess of India. The popularity of these chapbooks inspired Icelandic novelists Gunnar Leifsson and Niels Johnson to write novels inspired by the Tristan legend. N. J. Lacy (et al.). Tristan from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York : Garland Publishing, 1991.

Dutch

A 130 line fragment of a Dutch version of Thomas of Britain's Tristan exist. It is in a manuscript in Vienna at the National Library.

Welsh

A short Tristan narrative, perhaps related to the Béroul text, exist in six Welsh manuscripts dating from the late sixteenth to the mid seventeenth century.The Tristan Legend Hill. Leeds England: Leeds Medieval Studies. 1973

Spanish

In the first third of the 14th century the famous Arcipreste de Hita wrote a version of the Tristan story. Carta enviada por Hiseo la Brunda Tristan; Repuesta de Tristan was a unique 15th century romance written in the form of imaginary letters between the two lovers. Then there was a famous Spanish reworking of the French Prose Tristan, Libro del muy esforzado caballero Don Tristán de Leonís y de sus grandes hechos en armas first published in Validoloid in 1501, then republised in Seville in 1511, 1520, 1525, 1528, 1533 and 1534; additionally a second part, Tristan el Joven, was created which dealt with Tristan's son, Tristan of Leonis. N. J. Lacy (et al.). Carta enviada por Hiseo la Brunda Tristan; Repuesta de Tristan from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York : Garland Publishing, 1991.

Czech

A 13th century verse romance exists in Czech, theorised to be influenced by the popularity of German Tristaniana at the time. It is the only known verse representative of the Tristan story in a Slavic language. N. J. Lacy (et al.). Czech Arthurian Literature from The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York : Garland Publishing, 1991.

Italian

The Tristan legend proved very popular in Italy; there were many cantari, or oral poems performed in the public square, either about him, or frequently referencing him:

Cantari di Tristano
Due Tristani
Quando Tristano e Lancielotto combattiero al petrone di Merlino
Ultime impresse e morte Tristano
Vendetta che fe messer Lanzelloto de la Morte di Mister Tristano

There were also four major manuscripts of the Prose Tristan in medieval Italy, most named after their current city or place of composition:The New Arthurian Encyclopedia. N. J. Lacy (et al.). New York : Garland Publishing. 1991.

Tavola Ritonda
Tristano Panciaticchiano
Tristano Riccardiano
Tristano Veneto

Belarusan

The Belarusan (or ancient Litvan) prose Povest Trychane represents the furthest eastern advance of the legend, and, composed in the 1560s, is considered by some critics to be the last "medieval" Tristan or Arthurian text period.

Its lineage goes back to the Tristano Veneto. Venice, at that time, controlled large parts of the Serbo-Croatian langauge area, engendering a more active literary and cultural life there than in most of the Balkans during this period. The manuscript of the Povest states that it was translated from a (lost) Serbian intermediary. Scholars assume that the legend must have journeyed from Venice, through its Balkan colonies, finally reaching a last outpost in this Slavic dialect. The Byelorussian Tristan. Z.Kipel. New York : Garland Publishing, c1988. ISBN 0824075986

Modern literature

In the 19th century, Richard Wagner composed the opera Tristan und Isolde, now considered one of the most influential pieces of music from the century. In his work, Tristan is portrayed as a doomed romantic figure. In English, the Tristan story suffered the same fate as the Matter of Brittain generally. After being mostly ignored for about three centuries, there was a renaissance of original Arthurian literature, mostly narrative verse, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Tristan material in this revival included Alfred Tennyson's The Last Tournement and Algernon Charles Swinburne's epic poem Tristram of Lyonesse. After World War II most Tristan texts were in the form of prose novels or short stories. Novelist Thomas Berger retold the story of Tristan and Isolde in his interpretation of Arthurian legend, Arthur Rex.

Films

The story has also been adapted into film many times. Films named Tristan and Isolde from the Internet Movie Database The earliest is probably the 1909 French film Tristan et Yseult, an early, silent version of the story. Kevin J. Harty, "Arthurian Film", from the Camelot Project at the University of Rochester [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/acpbibs/harty.htm#iseult This was followed by another French film of the same name two years later, which offered a unique addition to the story. Here, it is Tristan's jealous slave Rosen who tricks the lovers into drinking the love potion, then denouces them to Mark. Mark has pity on the two lovers, but they commit double suicide anyway. A third silent French version appeared in 1920, and follows the legend fairly closely.

One of the most celebrated and controversial Tristan films was 1943's L'Éternel Retour (The Eternal Return), directed by Jean Delannoy (screenplay by Jean Cocteau). It is a contemporary retelling of the story with a man named Patrice in the Tristan role fetching a wife for his friend Marke. However, an evil dwarf tricks them into drinking a love potion, and the familiar plot ensues. The film was made in France during the Vichy regime, and elements in the movie reflect Nazi ideology, with the beautiful, blonde hero and heroine and the ugly, Semitic dwarf. Not only are the dwarfs visually different, they are given a larger role than in most interpretations of the legend; their conniving rains havoc on the lovers, much like the Jews of Nazi stereotypes.

The 1970 Spanish film Tristana is only tangentially related to the Tristan story. The Tristan role is assumed by the female character Tristana, who is forced to care for her aging uncle, Don Lope, though she wishes to marry Horacio. This was followed by the avant-garde French film Tristan et Iseult in 1972 and the Irish Lovespell, featuring Nicholas Clay as Tristan and Kate Mulgrew as Iseult; coincidentally, Clay went on to play Lancelot in John Boorman's epic Excalibur. The popular German film Fire and Sword premiered in 1981; it was very accurate to the story, though it cut the Iseult of Brittany subplot.

Legendary French director François Truffaut adapted the subject to modern times for his 1981 film La Femme d'à côté (The Woman Next Door), while 1988's In the Shadow of the Raven transported the characters to medieval Iceland. Here, Trausti and Isolde are warriors from rival tribes who come into conflict when Trausti kills the leader of Isolde's tribe, but a local bishop makes peace and arranges their marriage. Bollywood legend Subhash Ghai transfers the story to modern India and the United States in his 1997 musical Pardes. The Indian American Pardes (Amrish Puri) raises his orphaned nephew Arjun Shahrukh Khan. Eventually, Pardes sends Arjun back to India to lure the beautiful Ganga (Mahima Chaudhary) as a bride for his selfish, shallow son Rajiv (Apoorva Agnihotri). Arjun falls for Ganga, and struggles to remain loyal to his cousin and beloved uncle. The film features the Bollywood hit "I Love My India." The 2002 French animated film Tristan et Iseut is a bowdlerized version of the traditional tale aimed at a family audience.

The most recent Tristan film is 2006's Tristan & Isolde, produced by Tony Scott and Ridley Scott, written by Dean Georgaris, directed by Kevin Reynolds, and starring James Franco and Sophia Myles.

See also List of films based on Arthurian legend

Popular culture

The power metal band Blind Guardian wrote a song based on the story of Tristan and Isolde called The Maiden and the Minstrel Knight.

References

External links

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