Spanish-American War

The Spanish-American War took place in 1898, and resulted in the United States gaining control over the former colonies of Spain in the Caribbean and Pacific. The US lost 379 troops in combat and over 5,000 to disease. As a result of the war, Cuba would be declared independent in 1902.

Background

By the late nineteenth century Spain was left with only a few scattered possessions in the Pacific, Africa, and the West Indies. Much of the empire had gained its independence and a number of the areas still under Spanish control were clamoring to do so. Guerrilla forces were operating in the Philippines (see Philippine revolution, Philippine revolts against Spain, and Juan Alonso Zayas), and had been present in Cuba since before the 1868-1878 Ten Years' War decades. The Spanish government did not have the financial resources or the personnel to deal with these revolts and resorted to forcibly emptying the countryside and the filling of the cities with concentration camps (in Cuba) to separate the rebels from their rural base of support. Many hundreds of thousands of Cubans died of starvation and disease in these circumstances, 200,000 alone in the more peaceful western Cuba ^*. The Spaniards also carried out many executions of suspected rebels and harshly treated suspected sympathizers. The war saw both Cuban rebels and Spanish troops burning and destroying infrastructure, crops, tools, livestock, and anything else that might aid the enemy. Nevertheless, by 1897 the rebels had mostly defeated the Spanish. They were firmly in control of the eastern countryside and the Spanish could only leave urban centers in columns of considerable strength.

William Randolph Hearst's newspaper in New York documented the atrocities committed in Cuba. The civilian death toll was very high, and a real rebellion was being fought against Spanish rule^*. Public opinion in Cuba favored American intervention. Joseph Pulitzer was also a key in publicizing the war in New York City. His newspapers, along with Hearst's, practiced yellow journalism in which atrocities in Cuba were exaggerated.

Fueled by the reports of inhumanity of the Spanish, a majority of Americans became convinced that an "intervention" was becoming necessary. Hearst was famously (though probably erroneously) ^* quoted, in a response to a request by his illustrator Frederic Remington to return home from an uneventful and docile stay in Havana, as writing: "Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war."

Sinking of the USS Maine

On February 15 1898, an explosion sank the American battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor with a loss of 266 men. Evidence as to the cause of the explosion was inconclusive and contradictory. It might have been an accident, or a Spanish or Cuban mine. Although several newspapers practiced Yellow Journalism in their reporting, most remained cautious. Americans remained unsure of the cause; most blamed the Spanish for not controlling their harbor.

There were, however, very real pressures pushing toward war within Cuba. Faced with defeat, a lack of money, and resources to continue fighting Spanish occupation, Cuban revolutionary and future president Tomás Estrada Palma, then Head of the Cuban Revolutionary Junta, offered $150 million dollars to purchase Cuba's independence, but Spain refused. He then deftly negotiated and propagandized his cause in the U.S. Congress.

Humanitarian interests dominated American opinion. President McKinley and House Speaker Reed worked hard to calm the mood, as did many Republicans, but the pressure from Democrats across the country, steadily increased.

Spain could not back down without creating a crisis at home. Spain was on the verge of civil war and surrender to American demands would be politically dangerous. Much more acceptable to the Spanish was fighting a war (even though they expected to lose). That way the albatross of Cuba could be shed without civil war at home. The U.S. government had considered purchase of Cuba over the years but had always decided against making an offer. No one thought Cuba could be assimilated into the American political system, even if its location was so close. Much of the island's export business and high technology was already in American hands, and most of Cuba's trade was with the U.S. Thus there was no economic need for acquisition of the island, and no major business interests proposed acquisition. Most businessmen opposed war and supported McKinley.

Senator John M. Thurston of Nebraska: "War with Spain would increase the business and earnings of every American railroad, it would increase the output of every American factory, it would stimulate every branch of industry and domestic commerce."

The United States Navy had recently grown considerably and been reorganized, but it was still untested, and Navy leaders hoped war would help it prove itself. To this end, the U.S. Navy drew up contingency plans for attacking the Spanish in the Philippines over a year before hostilities broke out.

In Spain, the government was not entirely averse to war. The U.S. was an unproven power, while the Spanish Navy, however decrepit, had a glorious history, and it was thought it could be a match for the U.S. The DeLome Letter was an example of the doubts of Spain as to whether the U.S. was powerful enough to defeat them. There was also a widely held notion among Spain's aristocratic leaders that the United States' ethnically mixed army and navy could never survive under severe pressure.

Declaration of war

U.S. President William McKinley was not inclined towards war, and had long held out against intervention, but the Maine explosion so forcefully shaped public opinion that he had to agree. Spanish minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did much to try to prevent this, including withdrawing the officials in Cuba against whom complaints had been made, and offering the Cubans autonomy. This was well short of full independence for Cuba, however, and would have done little to change the status quo.

Thus, on April 11, McKinley went before Congress to ask for authority to send American troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war there. On April 19, Congress passed joint resolutions proclaiming Cuba "free and independent" and disclaiming any intentions in Cuba, demanded Spanish withdrawal, and authorized the President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain freedom from Spain. (This was adopted by Congress from Senator Henry Teller of Colorado as the Teller Amendment, which passed unanimously.) In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the United States and Spain had existed since April 21st (Congress later passed a resolution backdating the declaration of war to April 20th).

Theaters of operation

The Philippines

For more on engagements in the Philippines, please see Philippine-American War, Philippine Revolution.

The first battle was in the Philippines where, on May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the United States Pacific fleet, in a matter of hours, defeated the Spanish squadron, under Admiral Patricio Montojo y Pasarón, without sustaining a casualty at sea, at the Battle of Manila Bay. The success of the Pacific Fleet was due to the Spanish Navy being trapped in the bay. This naval battle became a textbook example for future Naval commanders.

Meanwhile, Dewey allowed Emilio Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines. Aguinaldo's forces attacked the Spanish on land, successfully defeating them and capturing much of the country, with the exception of Manila which was encircled by the Filipinos. The last significant action on the Philippines ended with the Battle of Manila (July 25 1898 - August 13, 1898) where the Spanish surrendered Manila to the U.S. Army.

Cuba

Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders"

Theodore Roosevelt had actively encouraged intervention in Cuba and, while assistant secretary of the Navy, placed the Navy on a war-time footing. He ordered Dewey and the Pacific fleet to the Philippines and he worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an all-volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. Wood was given command of the regiment that became quickly known as the "Rough Riders". They could not take their horses with them to Cuba due to lack of shipping space.

Naval operations in Cuba

The first action in Cuba was the establishing of a base at Guantánamo Bay on 10 June by U.S. Marines (see 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay)

Spanish Admiral Cervera, who had arrived from Spain, held up his naval forces in Santiago harbor where they would be protected from sea attack. Assistant Naval Constructor Richmond Pearson Hobson was soon ordered by Admiral Sampson to sink the collier Merrimac in the harbor to bottle up the fleet. Hobson modified a broken down collier and gathered a small crew of eight volunteers, and rigged the vessel with explosives. The plan was to sink the Merrimac in the narrow entry of Santiago Harbor, trapping the Spanish fleet within the harbor. The mission was a failure. Hobson and his crew were captured. They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became a national hero.

Ground operations in Cuba

The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago in order to destroy Cervera's fleet. The Americans forces would be aided in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García.

On June 22 and June 24, the US V Corps under General William R. Shafter landed at Daiquiri and Siboney East of Santiago and established the American base of operations, unopposed by the Spaniards who had retreated under assault by Cuban land forces. An advance guard of U.S. forces under former Confederate General Joseph Wheeler ignored Cuban scouting parties and orders to proceed with caution. They caught up with, and were ambushed by, the Spanish rear guard in the Battle of Las Guasimas. Here, U.S. forces were checked momentarily although the Spanish continued the retreat.

Battle of El Caney and San Juan Hill

On July 1 a combined force of about 20,000 American regular, all-colored Cavalry (as they were known at the time), volunteer regiments, including Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders," and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,700 entrenched Spaniards in dangerous frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan Hill outside of Santiago. These assaults were the bloodiest battle in the war with 1,600 American and 593 Spanish casualties. Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault ^*^*. It was then that Cervera decided to escape Santiago two days later.

The Spanish forces at Guantánamo were so isolated by Marines and Cuban forces that they did not know that Santiago was under siege, and their forces in the northern part of the province could not break through Cuban lines. This was not true of the Escario relief column from Manzanillo ^* which fought its way past determined Cuban resistance, but arrived too late to participate in the siege.

Subsequent operations

After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the action was slowed by the successful defenses at and around Fort Canosa ^*. The campaign turned into a bloody strangling siege (Daley, 2000). During the nights, Cuban troops were used to dig successive series of progressively advancing "trenches," which were actually raised parapets. Once completed, these parapets were occupied by US troops and a new set of parapets constructed. The US troops, while suffering some losses from Spanish fire, suffered far more casualties from heat exhaustion and mosquito borne disease (McCook, 1899). At the western approaches to the city Cuban General Calixto Garcia began to encroach on the city, causing much panic and fear of reprisals among the Spanish forces.

The Americans defeated Spanish Admiral Cervera as his fleet left the safety of the port of Santiago in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba and gained control of the waterways around Cuba. This prevented re-supply of the Spanish forces and also allowed the U.S. to land considerable reserve forces unopposed. Within a month most of the island was in US or Cuban hands. Soon the Spanish abandoned Havana under US protection and Cuban harassing fire.

Puerto Rico

During May 1898, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission, sponsored by the Army's Bureau of Military Intelligence. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government prior to the invasion. On May 10, 1898, U.S. Navy ships were sighted off the coast of Puerto Rico. Spanish gunners stationed at Fort San Cristóbal, under the orders of Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez, fired the first shot (a 15-cm breech loaded Ordóñez rifle round), missing the USS Yale, an auxiliary ship under the command of Capt. William Clinton Wise. Two days later on May 12, a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson bombarded San Juan, Puerto Rico. During the bombardment, many buildings were shelled, terrifying the population of San Juan. On June 25, the Yosemite blocked San Juan harbor.

On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of the invading forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy of 3,300 soldiers and nine transports escorted by the USS Massachusetts sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo, Cuba. On July 25, U.S. troops landed at Guánica, Puerto Rico and took over the island with little resistance.

Peace treaty

With both fleets incapacitated, Spain realized its forces in the Pacific and Caribbean could not be supplied or reinforced, so Spain sued for peace.

Hostilities were halted on August 12. The formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898 and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899. It came into force on April 11, 1899. Cubans participated only as observers.

The United States gained almost all of Spain's colonies, including the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Cuba was granted independence, but the United States imposed various restrictions on the new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries.

On August 14 1898, 11,000 ground troops were sent to occupy the Philippines. When U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country, warfare broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos. The resulting Philippine-American War was long, bloody, incurring thousands of military and civilian casualties during its fourteen-year span.

Aftermath

A war that was in part fueled by the American public's ambition to end the abuse of Cuban natives would in the end result in three territorial conquests for the U.S., tens of thousands of Spaniards and Cubans killed, and the deaths of perhaps a quarter of a million Filipinos ^*.

The Spanish-American War is significant in American history, as it saw the young nation emerge as an imperial power, though with domains far smaller than Britain or France. The war marked American entry into world affairs; over the course of the next century, the United States had a large hand in various conflicts around the world. The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the United States entered a lengthy and prosperous period of high economic growth, population growth, and technological innovation which would last through the 1920s.

The Spanish-American war marked the end of Spain as a colonial power. The defeat paradoxically postponed the civil war that seemed imminent in 1898 and created a renaissance known as the Generation of 1898. The Spanish eventually had a civil war in the 1930s.

Congress had passed the Teller Amendment prior to the war, promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations bill, forcing a peace treaty on Cuba which severely curtailed its freedom of action in foreign affairs and allowed the United States considerable freedom to intervene in Cuban affairs. It also provided for the establishment of a permanent American naval base in Cuba, which would lead to the base still in use today at Guantánamo Bay. The Cuban peace treaty of 1903 would govern Cuban-American relations until 1934.

The United States annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. The idea of the United States as an imperial power with foreign colonies was hotly debated domestically, with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their way over vocal opposition. The American public largely supported the possession of colonies, but there were many outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer in protest.

Mark Twain's writings attacked U.S. Army General Frederick Funston with particular ferocity. However, Funston, who was in the Philippines because, after fighting with Cuban rebel forces to again fight in Cuba, is notable for his adroit capture of Emilio Aguinaldo which much decreased the Philippine-American War's intensity, and other deeds which earned him the Medal of Honor [http://www.militarymuseum.org/Funston.html" target="_blank" >^* and promotion by Lieutenant General Arthur MacArthur, Jr., father of Douglas McArthur

William Randolph Hearst emerged as a national institution: the first media tycoon in American history. The Hearst papers became so extremely successful at agitating public sentiment in favor of war, that he eventually became an archetypal figure in his own right. He had become more influential than even many politicians, and, at various levels, would be sought after for that influence. Decades later, a young filmmaker named Orson Welles would immortalize the Hearst archetype with Citizen Kane, a portrayal which William Hearst, in later life, would find quite displeasing, though he reportedly never saw the film himself.

Another interesting, but little-noted effect of this short war, was that it served to further cement relations between the American North and South. The war gave both sides a common enemy for the first time since the end of the American Civil War in 1865, and many friendships would have been formed between soldiers of both Northern and Southern states during their tour of duty. This was an important development as many soldiers in this war were the children of Civil War Veterans on both sides, and many would have been raised to have opinions of their Northern or Southern neighbors which would steer more towards the negative rather than positive. The 1890s were a period of reconciliation between the former Yankees and Confederates, marked by "Blue-Gray" Reunions and increased political harmony between Northern and Southern politicians. The "Lost Cause" view took hold in the popular imagination and many former Confederate leaders were held in general high esteem nationally. The 1890s also saw resurgent racism in the North and the passage of Jim Crow laws that increased segregation of blacks from whites, culminating in the Plessy v. Ferguson decision by the Supreme Court in 1896 that codified the "separate but equal" doctrine into law. The Spanish-American War provoked widespread feelings of jingoistic American nationalism that fused often-divergent Northern and Southern public opinion.

Union and Confederate Veterans had organizations such as the Grand Army of the Republic and the United Confederate Veterans. In 1904, the United Spanish War Veterans was created from smaller groups of the veterans of the Spanish American War. Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the form of the Sons of Spanish American War Veterans, created in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans.

According to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Nathan E. Cook, died on September 10, 1992 at the age of 106. (Thus, if the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been a mere 12 years of age when he served in the war.)

Effects of the Puerto Rican annexation

Over 100 years have passed since the Guánica landing, yet the annexation of Puerto Rico continues to be an intensely debated issue today.

"The voice of Puerto Rico has not been heard. Not even by way of formality were its inhabitants consulted as to whether they wanted to ask for, object to, or suggest any conditions bearing on their present or future political status...The island and all its people were simply transferred from one sovereign power to another, just as a farm with all its equipment, houses, and animals is passed from one landlord to another." This statement was part of a pamphlet titled, "The Case of Puerto Rico", written by Dr. Julio J. Henna and Roberto H. Todd, leaders of the delegation that had previously advised President William McKinley on the prospective invasion of Puerto Rico, as part of the War against Spain.

The Spanish-American War was an unexpected twist in the Antillean revolution, a legacy which had seen prominent figures such as José Martí and Ramon Emeterio Betances not only inspire legions to revolt against Spanish rule in the Caribbean, but to form a federation of the Major Antilles, independent of Spain and the United States.

"I do not want us to be a colony, neither a colony of Spain nor a colony of the United States," wrote Betances.

The people of Puerto Rico have thrice voted to remain a commonwealth of the United States, rejecting measures both for independence and for full statehood within the union. As residents of a United States commonwealth, Puerto Ricans are entitled to some of the benefits of statehood. Since they are not allowed to vote for the President they are exempt from Federal income tax. All commerce also is controlled by the U.S. and undergoes extensive Federal regulation and taxation. Puerto Rico has one representative in the U.S. Congress who does not vote except in committee. Puerto Rico's congressman is elected as the Resident-Commissioner of Puerto Rico. Any Puerto Rican law can be repealed by the U.S. at anytime for any reason.

Propaganda in the War

It is said one of the most important aspects of the Spanish-American War is the propaganda. In the 1890s, while competing over readership of their newspapers, William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer’s yellow journalism are said to sway public opinion and contribute significantly to America’s decision to join the Spanish-American War. Yellow journalism, the story goes, the use of sensationalized reporting to form public opinion, was utilized by Pulitzer’s New York World and Hearst’s New York Journal American. This view proposes, that by reporting graphic stories of embellished, or sometimes falsified, atrocities committed by the Spanish soldiers against the Cuban citizens, Hearst and Pulitzer created public outrage that not only greatly bolstered the sales of their newspapers, but eventually led America into the Spanish-American War. Ultimately, Hearst would defeat Pulitzer in newspaper sales, before going on to pursue political ambitions. ^*.

Yellow Journalism is a form of propaganda, according to the idea outlined by Ronald F. Reid. By appealing to the territoriality and ethnocentrism of readers, Hearst and Pulitzer had great influence over American opinion of the Spanish. The Spanish soldiers, portrayed as cruel and bloodthirsty, were accused of countless illegal and immoral acts. Allegations were made that innocent women were strip searched by callous troops, or taken prisoner and thrown into Cuban jails full of violent criminals. These images and stories invoked the public outcry that led to war.

One of the most effective ways to rouse emotion was to portray the victimization of women, the most prominent being Evangelina Betancourt Cisneros. The articles do not only mention Evangelina, but also describe her as an affluent, innocent, and young woman. She was intentionally described this way to invoke a sympathetic response. The response the authors wanted was support for the Cubans. Evangelina Cisneros was, in fact, the daughter of a rebel leader who had been imprisoned. In order to get her father moved to a better prison, Evangelina offered to stay in prison with him. After an incident with a Spanish Colonel, the nature of which is unclear, Evangelina was moved to a much harsher prison.

The Spanish American War also saw the very first use of film in propaganda. A short ninety second film, called Tearing Down the Spanish Flag, produced in 1898, was a simple moving image designed to inspire patriotism and hatred for the Spanish in America. This film, as the title suggests, depicts the removal of the Spanish national flag and its replacement by the Stars and Stripes of America. This film was very effective in rousing its audience.

Military decorations

The Spanish-American War was regarded by both Spain and the United States as the first major conflict of modern warfare, leading into the technology of warfare that would be witnessed by the 20th century. As such, to recognize military participation in the conflict, a wide range of awards and decorations were created by all the powers involved to be bestowed upon those who had served in the Spanish-American War.

In the United States, the Spanish-American War was the first military conflict to be recognized by a wide range of service medals. The Medal of Honor also saw its first resurgence since the Civil War and the conflict saw the first wide scale recognition of individual acts of bravery by soldiers, marines, and sailors alike.

The United States awards and decorations of the Spanish-American War were as follows:

Medal of Honor (Extreme Acts of Heroism or Bravery)
Specially Meritorious Service Medal (Navy and Marine Corps Meritorious Actions)
Spanish Campaign Medal (General Service)
West Indies Campaign Medal (West Indies Naval Service)
Sampson Medal (West Indies service under Admiral Sampson)
Dewey Medal (Battle of Manila Bay Service)
Spanish War Service Medal (U.S. Army Homeland Service)
Army of Puerto Rican Occupation Medal (Post-War Occupation Duty)
Army of Cuban Occupation Medal (Post-War Occupation Duty)

The Spanish Campaign Medal was upgradeable to include the Silver Citation Star to recognize those U.S. Army members who had performed individual acts of heroism. The governments of Spain and Cuba also issued a wide variety of military awards to honor Spanish, Cuban, and Philippine soldiers who had served in the conflict.

Diplomacy and Causes of the War

James C. Bradford , ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath (1993), essays on diplomacy, naval and military operations, and historiography.
Lewis L. Gould, The Spanish-American War and President McKinley (1982)
Hendrickson, Kenneth E., Jr. The Spanish-American War Greenwood, 2003. short summary
Ernest R. May, Imperial Demoracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power (1961)
Walter Millis, The Martial Spirit: A Study of Our War with Spain (1931)
H. Wayne Morgan, America's Road to Empire: The War with Spain and Overseas Expansion (1965)
John L. Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895-1898 (1992).
Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish-American War" Presidential Studies Quarterly 2004 34(1): 50-61. Issn: 0360-4918
Pratt, Julius W. The Expansionists of 1898 (1936)
Schoonover, Thomas. Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization. 2003
Tone, John Lawrence. War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895-1898 (2006)

The War

Benjamin R. Beede, ed. The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898-1934 (1994). an encyclopedia
Donald Barr Chidsey, The SpanishAmerican War ( New York, 1971)
Cirillo, Vincent J. Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish-American War and Military Medicine 2004.
Graham A. Cosmas, An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish-American War (1971)
Frank Freidel, The Splendid Little War (1958), well illustrated narrative by scholar
Allan Keller, The Spanish-American War: A Compact History 1969
Gerald F. Linderman, The Mirror of War: American Society and the Spanish-American War (1974), domestic aspects
G. J. A. O'Toole, The Spanish War: An American Epic--1898 (1984).
John Tebbel, America's Great Patriotic War with Spain (1996)
David F. Trask, The War with Spain in 1898 (1981)

Historiography

Duvon C. Corbitt, "Cuban Revisionist Interpretations of Cuba's Struggle for Independence," Hispanic American Historical Review 32 (August 1963): 395-404.
Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573-97;
Hugh DeSantis, "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865-1900," in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review (1981), pp. 65-90
James A. Field Jr., "American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter' in Almost Any Book," American Historical Review 83 (June 1978): 644-68, past of the "AHR Forum," with responses
Joseph A. Fry, "William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish American War: A Study of the Besmirching and Redemption of an Historical Image," Diplomatic History 3 (Winter 1979): 77-97
Joseph A. Fry, "From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late-Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Pacific Historical Review 65 (May 1996): 277-303
Thomas G. Paterson, "United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898: Interpretations of the Spanish-American-Cuban-Filipino War," History Teacher 29 (May 1996): 341-61;
Louis A. Pérez Jr.; The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography University of North Carolina Press, 1998
Ephraim K. Smith, "William McKinley's Enduring Legacy: The Historiographical Debate on the Taking of the Philippine Islands," in James C. Bradford, ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish-American War and Its Aftermath (1993), pp. 205-49

References

Books Bryson, G. E. New York Journal. Weyler throws nuns into prison. 17 January 1897.
Cross, W. American Heritage Magazine. The perils of Evangelina. Feb. 1968.
Cull, N. J., Culbert, D., Welch, D. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present. Spanish-American War. Denver: ABC-CLIO. 2003. 378-379.
Daley, L. El Fortin Canosa en la Cuba del 1898. in Los Ultimos Dias del Comienzo. Ensayos sobre la Guerra Hispano-Cubana-Estadounidense. B. E.Aguirre and E. Espina eds. RiL Editores, Santiago de Chile 2000.pp. 161-171.
Davis, R. H. New York Journal. Does our flag shield women? 13 February 1897.
Duval, C. New York Journal. Evengelina Cisneros rescued by The Journal. 10 October 1897.
Everett, Marshall History of the Philippines and the life and achievements of Admiral George Dewey: Also containing the life and exploits of Brig.-Gen. Fred Funston, and ... and the history of American expansion. J.S. Ziegler 1899 ASIN: B00087QNNS
Funston, Frederick. Memoirs of Two Wars, Cuba and Philippine Experiences. New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1911
Kendrick M. New York Journal. Better she died then reach Ceuta. 18 August 1897.
Kendrick, M. New York Journal. The Cuban girl martyr. 17 February 1897.
Kendrick, M. New York Journal. Spanish auction off Cuban girls. 12 February 1897.
McCook, Henry C. The Martial Graves of Our Fallen Heroes in Santiago de Cuba. Philadelphia: Jacobs, 1899.
Muller y Tejeiro, Jose. Combates y Capitulacion de Santiago de Cuba. Marques, Madrid:1898. 208 p. English traslation by US Navy Dept.
Rubens, Horatio S. Liberty. The Story of Cuba. AMS Press New York, 1970 reprint of 1932 edition. SBN 404-00633-7
Wheeler, Joseph. The Santiago Campaign, 1898.Lamson, Wolffe, Boston 1898.
U.S. War Dept. Military Notes on Cuba. 2 vols. Washington, DC: GPO, 1898.

Web

American Volunteer Forces in The War With Spain

Notes

External links

Centennial of the Spanish-American War 1898–1998 by Lincoln Cushing
The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War - Library of Congress Hispanic Division
William Glackens prints at the Library of Congress
Spanish-American War Centennial
Images of Florida and the War for Cuban Independence, 1898 from the State Archives of Florida
Individual state's contributions to the Spanish-American War: Illinois, United States of America Pennsylvania
Sons of Spanish American War Veterans
From 'Dagoes' to 'Nervy Spaniards,' American Soldiers' Views of their Opponents, 1898 by Albert Nofi
History of Negro soldiers in the Spanish-American War, and other items of interest, by Edward Augustus Johnston, published 1899, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.

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