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The Soninke (also called Sarakole, Seraculeh, or 'Serahuli) are a Mandé people who descend from the Bafour and are closely related to the Imraguen of Mauritania. They were the founders of the ancient empire of Ghana c. 750-1240 CE). After contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from the north around 1066, the Soninke nobles of neighboring Takrur embraced Islam, being the earliest sub-Saharan ethnic group to follow the teachings of Muhammad. The Ghana empire dispersed, resulting in a diaspora which today finds Soninkes in Mali, Senegal, Mauritania, Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. Among this diaspora were famous traders known as the Wangara.
History
The kingdom of Ghana one of the first empires recognized in West Africa
The Soninke are an African ethnic group who are very conservative of their culture. They inherited a structural social organization from their forefather founders of the empire of Ghana. This empire constitutes the major part of the Soninke history and lifestyle. There are many writing about why the Empire came to end. However the Soninke people kept an oral narration of their history. To understand the Soninke actual lifestyle and moral it necessitates a return in the past. The Soninke people are an old African ethnic group. They make up one of the first documented Empires in West Africa known as the Empire of Ghana. The first ruler of this empire was Dingha Cisse and the Soninke think of him as their ancestor. The Soninke Empire comprised 99 villages forming the Empire of Ghana around AD 400. The Empire of Ghana has no any liaison with the modern Ghana. The ancient Ghana was located in the southern Mauritania and part of the north-west Mali. Dingha Cisse the founder of the ancient Ghana had a semi-divine status. He left with his people from the actual Senegal and created the Empire as a coalition against the “nomadic raiders”. Some people believed that after long battles with the Berbers Dingha Cisse married the three daughters of the Berber’s leader and created an impressive alliance. They think that the decline of the Empire was due to the fact that this union was broken at the end. The verbal narration of the Soninke people says that after the death of Dingha Cisse his two sons Khine and Dyabe disagreed about who would become the successor of their father. They fought and Khine won the battle. Dyabe, humiliated made an accord with a black snake with seven heads named Bida. Dyabe promised to sacrifice a virgin to the snake once every year in return for victory over his brother. He finally won thus he fulfilled his promise to Bida until his death. The wealth of Ghana is depicted by this oral Soninke story as the Soninke believe that there were rains of gold due to the annual virgin girl sacrifice to the black snake. Another clarification to the prosperity of the Soninke Empire is its richest gold mines on earth located in Kumbi Saleh the imperial capital. This place became an important commercial centre. The existence of camels facilitated the transport of gold and other products. The Soninke developed a wealthy trade market where they also traded slaves, salt and copper for textiles, beads and finished goods with Berbers. With the amplitude of trade Islam was installed in the empire. However the king continued to follow his cultural beliefs. Many states in the empire became Muslims. They built twelve mosques and accepted Islam justice and schools. Some Arab people relate the decline of the Empire to the attack of Almoravid who came to convert the empire into Islam. Thus the empire became weak to tributary chiefdoms. Others think that the power of Islam was slow and did not engage any assault. There are many explanations about what lead to the decline of the empire. One fact is that the king lost his trading monopoly. Also, drought began to have a long term effect on the land, ruining its ability to sustain cattle and cultivation. New gold fields began mining for example, at Bure (modern Guinea) which was out of reach for Ghana and new trade routes were opening up further east. For the Soninke people the decline of their empire was due to the legend of Wagadu. They think that it is due to the rupture of the pact relating the empire and the black snake. That happened when the notables of the empire choose Siya Yatabare as the annual sacrifice to the black snake “Bida” for she was the most beautiful and “cleanest” virgin girl in that year. There was a problem because Siya Yatabare was going to get married. Her fiancé Maadi an orphan was the unique child of his mother Djamere Soukhounou. Maadi had a quality he always did what he promised. When Siya Yatabare’ servitor heard the designation of his master he went to see Maadi and told him what would happen to his fiancée Siya Yatabare. He told him that the nobles of Wagadu have decided to give his fiancée to “Bida” the black snake of Wagadu. Maadi assured him that Siya Yatabare would not be a gift to “Bida”. Maadi promised to his fiancée that she would not finish in the well of Wagadu. Siya Yatabare tried to convince him that it is her destiny, that he should let her to be the gift to the snake in order to save the Empire but Maadi refused. Few days after he asked his friend the blacksmith of his village named Bomou to sharpen his saber. He took food and other needs for the blacksmith’s family to last a week, the time for the blacksmith to do his work. After the end of Bomou’s work Maadi was very satisfied of his new saber. When the day came, Maadi set on his way in the direction of the well of Wagadu. Siya Yatabare was well dressed and her hairstyle was in gold. The praise-singer encouraged her and her family the Yatabare. During the night they brought her to the well and before leaving her they said if you are a clean girl we will not find you here tomorrow, if you are not you will be here at the same place. When they left she saw Maadi, and they both fell in tears. Siya yatabare told him that if he kills the snake wagadu would not have anymore rain, and the empire would be destroyed forever. Maadi refused he said their destinies are ratified. He left her and hid himself somewhere near there waiting for the snake. The snake of Wagadu has seven heads. First of all he took out his seventh head to verify if the girl is clean or not. If she is not clean he would not touch his prey. If she is a clean girl he takes out his others heads one after another. As Maadi knows about the entire scenario he was ready to attack “Bida” the black snake. So when the snake took out his head, Maadi cut it. He did the same to all the others heads. When the snake took out his last head the one in silver, the night became clear like the day. Maadi held his hands up when the snake said “I swear by the lord of seven head, during seven years and seven bad years, and during seven months and seven bad months, during seven days and seven bad days wagadu will not receive any rain and any piece of gold”. Maadi did not mind he cut the last head. The snake died. Maadi gave to Siya yatabare his shoes, the sheath of his saber, his ring, his “danan koufoune” cap. He told her if tomorrow they ask you some clarifications give them those things. Maadi went to his village and told all the details to his mother. She said “you are my only son and it is because of your fiancée that you killed the “Bida” however the nobles of Wagadu will try to punish you. I swear in the memory of your father that I will do everything to protect you from Wagadu.” When the sun came up the nobles asked the prise-singer to go check the situation of the well of Wagadu. When they saw Siya Yatabare and the heads of the snake in the well they asked her what happened. As an answer she gave them the shoes and all the things that Maadi gave her. The nobles of the 99 villages called everybody to come and try to wear the articles of clothing. When Maadi wore the shoes, the bonnet and the ring, everything fit. People knew that he killed the snake. They were going to take him when his mother intervened and said: “I thought there were men in Wagadu but I do not see any. You are afraid of the prediction of the snake even before you die. But there is something sure nobody will kill my son because of a snake. I do not see any men here. You will know that my loincloth is better than all your trousers accumulated here. During those seven bad years and seven bad months and seven bad days, the needs of wagadu would be in my charge as an exchange of my son’s life and his marriage with Siya Yatabare.” With a big shame the notables of Wagadu concluded the agreement. And the end of the malediction Djamere Shoukhouna died and the nobles of wagadu met and decided that she did what she promised and the agreement is at end. So the destiny will be accomplished. Wagadu went from fertile to dry, there was no more rain. The children of Dingha the Soninke were forced to leave that place which became inhospitable. Thus every family went to his destiny that is the decline of the Ghana Empire the end of the Soninke Empire. The empire of Mali ruled by Soundiata Keita took place. La légende du serpent. 2005. Coredia de Diawara. Retrived April 28, 2006 from http://www.diawara.org/soninkara/legende.php Empire of Ancient Ghana. 2002. Ghana.co.uk. Retrieved April 28, 2006, from http://www.ghana.co.uk/history/history/ancient_ghana.htm The empire of Ghana. 1999. Nguni imports Retrieved April 28, 2006, from http://www.nguni.com/culture/virtualafrica/mali/history.html History The Ghana Empire. 2002. Mali Ancient crossroads of Africa. Retrieved April 28, 2006, from http://mali.pwnet.org/history/history_ghana_empire.htm Ancient Ghana, The story of Africa western African kingdoms. BBC WORLD SERVICE Retrieved April 28, 2006 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter1.shtml Les Soninkos et l’empire du GHANA. 2005. Coredia de Diawara Retrieved April 28, 2006 from http://www.diawara.org/soninkara/soninkara.php
The Camara of Guidimakha’ story one of the Soninke tribes
Mr Camara Yelli one of the inhabitants of Haourou a village in Guidimakha told me February 25, 2006 that Soundiata Keita the emperor of the Manding in Mali wanted to have the city of Boli in his Empire. He promised to all the warriors of his Empire that the person who will help him conquer the city of Boly will have anything he wants from him. Gane the ancestor of the Camara of Guidimakha was the strongest warrior of Soundiata Keita Empire. Gane went with his army to the city of Boly he won the battle. He killed the king of Boly cut his head and put it in his bag. He brought it to Sundiata Keita as a proof of his victory. So the city of Boly became a part of Soundiata Keita Empire. He was very happy and wanted to reward his warrior Gane. He told him in front of all his court come tomorrow at early morning I will give to you anything you want that you have seen in my kingdom. This is the big promise that the emperor Soundiata Keita made to Gane. Tekhaye Kante the youngest wife of Soundiata heard it. As she loved Gane she dressed herself as new bride and sat early in the morning in the middle of the royal court. Soundiata Keita, Gane and the royal court met at this time at the place convened. When Gane saw her, he thought that it was the gift the emperor promised him and thanked Soundiata keita. As an emperor a parole is sacred so he agreed to give to Gane in marriage his wife Tekhaye Kante. However Soundiata Keita was so furious and humiliated and Tekhaye Kante knew it. She advised to her new husband Gane to desert the Soundiata Keita Empire. Gane followed his wife’s advice and left with her and his friends Barri, Gassama, Dagnokho. When they arrived in a village away from soundiata Keita’s Empire he left his companions and his wife with the chief of that village named Sylla. He went hunting. During his absence Soundiata Keita’s army came and fought with the sylla in order to bring back with them Tekhaye Kante the ex-wife of the emperor. The sylla won the battle and soon Soundiata’s army went back without Gane’s companions. When Gane came back from hunting he took his companions and left the sylla’s village in order to prevent their hosts from any attack of Soundiata Keita. On the road to Guidimakha he met a cisse and they became friends, continuing the journey together. They arrived to a mountain and found there a king named Magha Soumare. They continued by foot to the top of the mountain. For the warriors of that time, music would be made to let the king know about their presence. He knew that Gane was a strong warrior. The soumare were farmers and they needed protection against the Berbers of Mauritania. Gane agreed to protect them. Magha Soumare knew that Gane will dominate his kingdom in the future thus he asked Gane to promise him that the kingdom will take his name. He gave his daughter in marriage to Gane as an alliance. After his death Gane dominated the kingdom but he did what he promised. He named it “Guidimakha” which means the Mountain of Makha. Thus Gane became the king of Guidimakha which is located in the southern Mauritania and the northern Mali.Geography
Geographically the Soninke live in Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, and Burkina Faso, and Guinea. Nowadays they are almost everywhere because of emigration.
Social organization and politics
The ancient empire Soninke was governed by an emperor who had a great power but was not a tyrant. His power was limited by some notables who were in charge of the administration, taxes, army, justice and other duties. So the central government of the empire was composed of the emperor and those nobles that we can consider as important advisors. The peripheral courts had some freedom deciding on their interior problems however they were supervised by the imperial court concerning the problems of all the empire as the army. In the time of Wagadu there was an emperor at the head of the empire followed by the noble’s families. Even after the decline of the empire the majority of the Soninke families still maintained this hierarchy in their villages. In the Soninke social organization everyone occupies a place in that level. You cannot be a king or a smith by choice. It is something that you receive by blood. It is a merit that you have from you forefathers. So this hierarchy is very important in Soninke culture and it is something that the Soninke respect. This structural social organization is divided in three levels. The first level is the “Hooro” who are the free men. They have the highest social rank. The hooro are the rulers, they have the right to punish and make justice. Among the “Hooro” there are the “tunkalemmu” princes. They are designated to exercise authority. Only they can become king. They have this leadership in their blood. They receive it from their fathers. The next class after the princes “tunnkalemmu” are the “mangu”. The mangu are the advisors of the princes. They are their confidents. When there are some problems among the different classes of “Hooro” or free man they play the role of mediators. The “mangu” origins are “kuralemme” which means warriors. So when there is a war he becomes the chief of the army. The last class of the “hooro” free man is the “modinu” the priest. Their origin is from the influence of Islam in Soninke society. They make justice, and educate the population. They teach them Islam and protect them with prayers. They are very much respected for their knowledge in religion. The second level of the Soninke organization is the “naxamala” which is also divided in many others classes. The “naxamala” are the dependant men. The “tago” or blacksmiths occupy the first class among them. They make the arms and tools of work. They also make jewelry. They are respected for their knowledge in iron. After the blacksmith there comes the carpenter “Sakko”. They are the friends of the inhabitants of the forest. They are the confidents and the masters of devils. They have a big importance because their knowledge in wood is great. Then we have the praise-singer “Jaroo”. During ceremonies they are in charge of animation, speaking, and singing. They are the most famous in the dependant class “naxamala”. They are the only authorized to say anything they want. They are the orator of the society. They detain the history of most important Soninke families. The last class in the “naxamala” class is the cobbler “Garanko”. They are in charge of the leather shoes, saddle of mounting and sheaths of sabers. The last hierarchy of the Soninke social organization after the free-man “horoo” and the dependant men “naxamala” are the slaves known as “komo”. The slaves “komo” work for the masters. Their masters had also to take care of them but it was not always the case. The slaves have been always the force major of labor in the Soninke society. The prosperity of the Soninke society was due to their abundance in the domain of farming. In the past there were more slaves than free-men. http://www.soninkara.com/main.php3? =societe/famille&id=2
People And Culture
Marriage
The different Soninke social classes do not marry one another. It is very important for the Soninke to maintain this social organization so the free-men do not marry the dependant man or the slaves. A priest can marry a princess however a prince cannot marry a priest girl. There are different steps to follow when celebrating a marriage in the Soninke society. If a girl pleases a man he has to send his parents in order to convince the girl family to give their daughter to their son in marriage. If both families agreed they do what is called “I na tamma laga” the engagement. They do it in the mosque. After this step every month the fiancé give to his family in law his “Nakhafa” the contribution of the fiancé to his future wife’s family for their foods and others spending. Every tabaski or other holidays, he has also give meat to his family in law. This is not mandatory if he does not have the means to do it. If both families agreed that it is time for the two new couples to live together they do what is called “futtu” the definitive accord of marriage. They usually do it a Thursday afternoon they send the girl to her husband’s house. In that occasion the friends of the new couples come to spend the day with them in separate rooms in their parent’s house. This event is the “karikompe”. The new married couple has advisors. The boy’s advisor is the “Khoussoumanta-yougo” and the girl’s advisor is the “khoussoumanta-yakhare”. After one week of celebration the women meet to show the gifts that the couple received from their parents mostly from the girl’s mother. Culture Et Tradition. 2002.Soninkara Retrieved 04/05/06, from http://www.soninkara.com/main.php3?f=accueilCircumcision the “Birou”
Mamadou Soumare an author said “Above its traditional surgery, the ritual of circumcision makes in evidence, the physical endurance, the pain, the courage, in one word the personality of the child.” Festivities are organized during many weeks starting from the date of circumcision has been chosen by the notables of the village. In order to prepare them psychologically the elder who had been circumcised the year before organized every afternoon “tam-tams” for the new one. Throughout the ceremony they place the “tambour” called “daïné” in the middle the young who are going to be circumcised sit around, and the others teenagers of the village, young girls, women, men and slaves form a circle. During this time the boys surrounded with beautiful scarves “disa” sing for them. Cisse.A Coumba. Le « BIROU »la circoncision. Soninkara Retrieved April 28, 2006 from http://www.soninkara.com/main.php3?f=societe/circoncision2&id=2Foods
The Soninke have a big variety of cuisine. As an example we can cite the “sombi” and the “fonde” for the breakfast. The “fonde” makes up Millet, Sugar, milk, and salt. The “sombi” makes up rice or read grains, or millet of corn. For the lunch the “demba tere” and the “takhaya” are very common. They both contain rice and peanuts this shows how the Soninke consume regularly those two ingredients. For the lunch many prefer the “dere” a mixture of millet and mostly beans. The Soninke have their own special cuisine which good tasting is very well known in their neighborhoods. Culture Et Tradition. 2002. Soninkara Retrieved 04/05/06, from http://www.soninkara.com/main.php3?f=accueilEconomy
The Soninke make money with trade and agriculture. They are known as very dynamic and solid workers. During rains season men and women both cultivate. However women usually stay at home to cook and take care of their children. They also do others works as dyeing cotton material. “The dark blue indigo is considered a typical Soninke color.” The Soninke attained a high good level of living. Emigration took a huge place in their life. Most of the time women, children and old stay at home alone when the young men go to neighbor cities to find money. The majority of emigrated people in France are from this ethnic group. Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848-1960. - Review - book reviews. 1999. Look smart Find Articles. Retrieved April 28, 2006, from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2005/is_1_33/ai_56027336
Education
Many Soninke living in villages have no occidental education. They do not go to school. They learn the Coran and wait until a certain age to leave their families to search money. Boubou M. Camara another inhabitant of Guidimakha told me April 09, 2006 that in the colonial period when the European asked their parents to give them their children in order to be educated at school they refused. He said “our parents prefer to bring their slaves at school; they hide us because they did not trust the western schools.”
Religion
From their heritage of the ancient Ghana the Soninke maintained Islam as their religion. They are one of the first West African ethnic groups to convert into Islam.
Conclusion
The African in writing and orally have conserved their history and culture. The results of the present study show how the Soninke have also this principle. They are very attached to their heritage and maintain the heritage they received about many centuries ago. For a Soninke who should talk who should do something is determined by their traditions. All the Soninke respect this principle. Trade still remains the way they make money as their forefathers do in the ancient Empire. Thus the oral narration the Soninke have of their history determines their education and all their lifestyle.
References
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