Scottish English

Scottish English is usually taken to mean the standard form of the English language used in Scotland, often termed Scottish Standard English. It is the language normally used in formal, non-fictional written texts in Scotland. Some people consider Scottish English to include Scots whereas others treat it separately.

Background

Scottish English is the result of language contact between Scots and English after the 17th century (dialect contact may be more accurate in that the indigenous Language Lowland Scots was a related variety). The resulting shift to English by Scots-speakers resulted in many phonological compromises and lexical transfers, often mistaken for mergers by linguists unfamiliar with the history of Scottish English. Further more, the process was also influenced by interdialectal forms, hypercorrections and spelling pronunciations. (See Phonology below) The standard spelling, grammar, and punctuation of Scottish English tend to follow the style of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED). However, there are some unique characteristics, mainly in the phonological and phonetic systems, many of which originate in the country's two autochthonous languages, the Scottish Gaelic language and Scots. The speech of the middle classes in Scotland often conforms to the grammatical norms of the written standard, particularly in situations that are regarded as formal. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, and lexically influenced by a Gaelic substratum.

Lexis

General items are outwith, meaning outside of; pinkie for little finger; doubt meaning to think or suspect; and wee, the Scots word for small (which also occurs in Irish English). Correct is often preferred to right (meaning "morally right" or "just") when the speaker means "factually accurate".

Culturally specific items like caber, haggis, and landward for rural.

In some areas there is a substantial lexis apparently acquired from the Romany language and from Eastern European languages; examples include gadge (lad, chap) and peeve (alcoholic drink).

There is a wide range of (often anglicised) legal and administrative vocabulary inherited from Scots. depute for deputy. proven for proved, and sheriff substitute for acting sheriff.

Phonology

RenfrewshireAccent.ogg

Simplified overview of the Scottish vowel system for Central Scotland. The vowel numbers are those from the scheme devised by A.J. Aitken. The Lexical Sets are those from the scheme devised by J.C. Wells. Phonetics are in IPA.

	Scots	Vowel	Scottish English	Lexical Set
8a	aye (always), gey (very), Mey (May), pey (pay), wey (way)
10	evite (avoid), jyne (join), pynt (point), ile (oil), chyce (choice)
1s	bite, bide, price, wife, tide		bite, bide, price, wife (/ai/)	PRICE
1l	five, size, fry, ay (yes), kye (cows), fire		five, size, fry, eye, die, lie, tied, fire	PRICE
2	meet, need, queen, sieven (seven), deil (devil), here, gie (give)		meet, need, queen, see, meat, steal, here	FLEECE NEAR
1l	ee (eye), dee (die), dree (endure), lee (untruth), see
3	meat, braith (breath), deid (dead), heid (head), steal, peir (pear), meir (mare)	Merges with4 or 8
4	aik (oak), ait, (oat), saip (soap), baith (both), hame (home), stane (stone), hale (whole), tae (toe), gae (go), late, pale, bathe, day, say, mair (more), care		late, pale, bathe, day, say, away, May, pay, way, care, mare, pear	FACE SQUARE
8	bait, braid (broad), hail, pail, pair	may merge with 4	bait, braid, hail, pail pair	FACE SQUARE
5	throat, coat, thole (endure), rose, afore (before)	may merge with 18	throat, coat, rose, before, oak, oat, soap, both, home, stone, whole, toe, go, shoulder, old, cold, mow, snow, grow, over, solder, colt, roll, more, Forth	GOAT
18	cot, God, on, loch, bocht (bought), horse, Forth		cot, God, on, golf, knoll, horse	LOT CLOTH
6	aboot (about), bouk (bulk), poupit (pulpit), lood (loud), pouder (powder), shouder (sholder), room, mooth (mouth), hoose (house), loose (louse), cou (cow), nou (now), fou (full) (sour), pushion (poison), plew (plough), oo (wool), oor (hour), soor		boot, fruit, moon, pool, rule, loose, poor, do, chew, blue, true, two, moor, sure	GOOSE
6			put, good, hook, room, full, pull, wool, pulpit	FOOT
7	buit (boot), fruit, guid (good), muin (moon), uiss (use n.), uise (use v.) luve (love), dae (do), muir (moor), puir (poor), shuir (sure)	merged with 4l, 15s
9	Boyd, noise, boy, joy		Boyd, noise, boy, joy, avoid, join, point, oil, choice, poison	CHOICE
12	faut (fault), saut (salt), fraud, mawn (mown), auld (old), cauld (cold), hauch (meadow), cause, law, snaw (snow), aw (all), awa (away), faw (fall), twa (two), faur (far), daur (dare), waur (worse)	/	bought, fault, salt, fraud, cause. law, all, fall, war	THOUGHT
13	nowt (cattle), cowt (colt), gowf (golf), sowder (solder), lowse (loose), chowe (chew), growe (grow), knowe (knoll), fower (four), ower (over), rowe (roll)		about, loud, powder, mouth, house, louse, cow, now, plough, bough, hour, sour	MOUTH
14	duty, feud, rule, news, dew, few, blue, true heuk (hook), neuk (nook), beuch (bough), teuch (tough), *pleuchs (ploughs)	/	duty, feud, news, dew, few, use n., use v., cure	CURE
15	bit, pit (put), lid, hiss, gird (hoop), his, nixt (next), whither (whether), yird (earth), fir		bit, lid, hiss, give, his, fir	KIT
16	met, bed, ledder (leather), meh (bleat), ser (serve), Perth, Ker		seven, devil, next, whether, earth, met, bed, leather, breath, dead, head, leaven, revel, vex, serve, Perth, defer, Ker	DRESS
17	sat, lad, man, jazz, vase, warst, mar		sat, lad, man, jazz, vase, far, mar	TRAP BATH START
19	butt, bud, buss, buff, wird (word), fur		butt, bud, bus, buff, buzz, love, bulk, tough, word, worse, worst, fur	STRUT

* From development of Vowel 7 before // and //.

Pronunciation features vary among speakers, and there are social and regional differences (Wells 1982):

It is a rhotic accent, with r still pronounced before consonants or silence. It may be (an alveolar trill), though more commonly a alveolar tap and especially post-alveolar approximant , depending on the phonological context.
The differentiation between "w" in witch and "wh" in which, and respectively survives.
The phoneme is also still common in names and in SSE's many Gaelic and Scots borrowings, so much so that it is often taught to incomers, particularly for "ch" in loch. Some Scottish speakers use it in words of Greek origin as well, such as technical, patriarch, etc. (Wells 1982, 408).
L is usually dark, though in areas where Gaelic was recently spoken—including Dumfries and Galloway—a clear l may be found.
The following may occur in colloquial speech, usually among the young, especially males. They are not usually regarded as part of SSE, their origin being in Scots:
- The use of glottal stops for between vowels or word final after a vowel, for example butter and cat .
- The realisation of the nasal velar in the suffix "-ing" as a nasal alveolar "in'" for example talking .
Vowel length is usually regarded as non-phonemic, but is a crucial aspect of the accent (Scobbie et al. 1999). It most clearly affects , and . Predictable short vowel duration gives many Scottish accents a distinctive "clipped" pronunciation before two classes of consonants, namely nasals, for example spoon and voiced stops, especially , e.g. brood . This is generally the same as in the Scots language, but the latter includes minimal pairs for e.g. gey, "very" vs. e.g. guy. Vowel length is nearly phonemic in SSE because when open syllable verbs are suffixed they remain long, thus vowel length clearly distinguishes e.g. crude vs. crewed, need vs. kneed, and side vs. sighed.
SSE usually distinguishes between before in herd-bird-curd, in Received Pronunciation these have merged into .
Many varieties contrast and before as in hoarse and horse.
SSE contrasts and , as in shore and pour vs. sure and poor.
Fool and full have or or in SSE where RP differentiates.
SSE pronounces both cot and caught .
Cat and cart are differentiated as allophones, but are not phonemes, so that Sam and psalm are homophonous.

Syntax

Syntactical differences are few though in colloquial speech shall and ought are wanting, must is marginal for obligation and may is rare. Many syntactical features of SSE are found in other forms of English, e.g. English English and North American English:

Can I come too? or ''Can I come as well?' for "May I come too?"
Have you got any? for "Do you have any?"
I've got one of those already. for "I have one of those already."
It's your shot. for "It's your turn."
My hair is needing washed. or My hair needs washed for "My hair needs washing."
Amn't I invited? for "Am I not invited?"
How no? for "Why not?"

The use of "How?" meaning "Why?" is unique to Scottish and Northern Irish English.

Note that in Scottish English, the first person declarative I amn't invited and interrogative "Amn't I invited?" are both possible. Contrast English English, which has "Aren't I?" but no contracted declarative form. (All varieties have "I'm not invited".)

Other examples are distinctively Scots:

Dae ye ken Ken kens Ken? for "Do you know Ken knows Ken?"
Am I no invited? for "Aren't I invited?"

Other influences from Scots may occur, depending on the speaker.

References

Aitken, A. J. (1979) "Scottish speech: a historical view with special reference to the Standard English of Scotland" in A. J. Aitken and Tom McArthur eds. Languages of Scotland, Edinburgh: Chambers, 85-118. Updated in next.

External links

Scottish Corpus of Texts & Speech - Multimedia corpus of Scots and Scottish English
The Speech Science Research Centre at Queen Margaret University College in Edinburgh.

Schottisches Englisch | スコットランド英語 | Scottish English