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Russian orthography (правописание ) is formally considered to encompass spelling (орфография ) and punctuation (пунктуация ). Russian spelling, which is quite phonetic in practice, is a mix of the morphological and phonetic principles, with a few etymological or historic forms, and occasional grammatical differentiation. The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries reformulated on the French and German models.
NOTE. The IPA transcription attempts to reflect vowel reduction when not under stress. The sounds that are presented are those of the standard language; some dialects may have noticeably different pronunciation for the vowels.
Spelling
Russian is written with a modern variant of the Cyrillic alphabet.
Morphological principle
Under the morphological principle, the morphemes (roots, suffixes, infixes, and inflexional endings) are attached without modification; the compounds may be further agglutinated. For example, the long adjective шарикоподшипниковый "relating to ball bearings" may be decomposed as follows (words having independent existence in italics):| шар | * " target="_blank" > | * | |||||
| "sphere" | diminutive suffix | combining interfix | "under" (preposition or prefix) | "tenon" | suffix indicating agency | adjectival suffix | inflexional ending, nominative masculine singular |
| шарик "little sphere", "ball" | colspan=3>подшипник "bearing" | * | |||||
| шарикоподшипник "ball bearing" | * | ||||||
| шарикоподшипниковый "relating to/of ball bearings" | |||||||
Note again that each component in the final production retains its basic form, despite the slurring of the vowels.
The phonetic assimilation of consonant clusters also does not usually violate the morphological principle of the spelling. For example, the decomposition of счастье "happiness", "good fortune", is as follows:
| с | часть | * |
| "with" (prefix or preposition) | "part" (here in the related meaning "fate") | (suffix for formation of abstract noun of state) |
Note the assimilation of the сч- to be pronounced щ- The spelling "щастие" was fairly common among the literati in the eighteenth century, but is a common illiteracy today.
Phonetic principle
The phonetic principle implies that:
- all morphemes are written as they are pronounced in isolation, without vowel reduction, Church Slavonic style, or, more strictly, taking inflexion into account (this in combination with the morphological agglutination described above is sometimes called the morphemic principle);
- certain prefixes that end in a voiced consonant (in practice, only those in -з ) have that consonant devoiced (become -с ) to reflect the vocal assimilation. For example, for the prefix/preposition без "without":
| безумный | "mindless", "mad" (ум "mind") | |
| бессмертный | "immortal" (смерть "death") |
- certain roots and prefixes occasionally do have their vowel modified in individual cases to reflect historical changes in pronunciation, usually as a result of being unstressed, or conversely, stressed. In practice, this usually applies to -o- made -a- or (akanye), and to the allophonic vowels -ы- , -и- merging into or even at the boundary between a prefix and the subsequent morpheme when not under stress:
- the spelling of borrowed words is usually phonetic, until the word is fully adapted:
Note that the unpalatalized above has remained.
Etymological principle
The fact that Russian has retained much of its ancient phonology has made the historical or etymological principle (dominant in English) less relevant. Because the spelling has been adjusted to reflect the changes in the pronunciation of the yers and to eliminate letters with identical pronunciation, the only systematic examples occur in some foreign words and in some of the inflectional endings, both nominal and verbal, which are not always written as they are pronounced. For example:
| русского | not | "of the Russian" (adj. masculine/neuter genitive singular) |
| хочешь | not | you (sg) want present second person singular, -e- conjugation |
| смотришь | not | you (sg) are looking present second person singular, -и- conjugation |
Grammatical principle
The grammatical principle has become stronger in contemporary Russian. It specifies conventional orthographic forms to mark grammatic distinctions (gender, participle vs. adjective, and so on). Some of these rules are ancient, and could perhaps be considered etymological; some are based in part on subtle, and not necessarily universal, distinctions in pronunciation; and some are basically arbitrary. Here are some characteristic examples:
- for nouns ending in a sibilant -ж , -ш , -щ , -ч , a soft sign ь is appended in the nominative singular if the gender is feminine, and is omitted if masculine:
- (Though based on common ancient etymology, by which a hard sign ъ was appended to masculine nouns before 1918, both symbols having once been pronounced as ultra-short or reduced yers, the modern rule is nevertheless grammatical, because its application has been made more nearly universal.)
- The past passive participle has a doubled -нн- or , the same word used as an adjective has a single -н- :
- (This rule is partly guided by pronunciation, and has its origins in the nineteenth century. Russian phonological processes often transform the -e before the single -н- in the adjective into a -ё- , but not universally so. This rule is therefore considered one of the difficult points of Russian spelling, since the distinction between adjective (implying state) and participle (implying action) is not always clear. A proposal in the late 1990s to simplify this rule by basing the distinction on whether or not the verb is transitive has not been formally adopted.)
- Prepositional phrases in which the literal meaning is preserved are written with the words separated; when used adverbially, especially if the meaning has shifted, they are usually written as a single word:
- (This is extracted from a whole set of extremely detailed rules about run-together, hyphenated, or separated components. Such rules are essentially arbitrary. There are enough sub-cases, exceptions, undecidable points, and inconsistencies that even well-educated native speakers sometimes have to check the dictionary. Arguments about this issue have been continuous for 150 years.)
Punctuation
Basic symbols
The full stop (period) (.), colon (:), semi-colon (;), comma (,), question mark (?), exclamation point (!), and ellipsis (...) are equivalent in shape to the basic symbols of punctuation (знаки препинания ) used for the common European languages, and follow the same general principles of usage. The colon is used exclusively as a means of introduction, and never, as in slightly archaic English, to mark a periodic pause intermediate in strength between the semicolon and the full stop (period) (cf. H.W. Fowler, The King's English, 1908).
Comma usage
The comma is used very liberally to mark the end of introductory phases, on either side of simple appositions, and to introduce all subordinate clauses. The English distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive clauses does not exist:| Итак, царя свергнули! | So the tsar has been overthrown! |
| Мужчина, которого вы вчера сбили, умер. | The man you ran over yesterday has died. |
| Это странное явление, о котором так часто пишут в газетах, так и остаётся без научного объяснения. | This strange phenomenon, which is so often reported in the press, remains unexplained by science. |
Hyphenation
The hyphen (-), and em-dash (—) are used to mark increasing levels of separation. The hyphen is put between components of a word, and the em-dash to separate words in a sentence, in particular to mark longer appositions or qualifications that in English would typically be put in parentheses, and as a replacement for a copula:
| Наш телефон: 242-01-42. | Our telephone: 242-0142. |
| Без сильной команды — такой, которую в прошлом собирал и тренировал Тихонов — Россия не взяла золотую медаль на Олимпиаде-2002. | Without a strong team (like the one that Tikhonov in the past selected and trained), Russia did not win the gold medal at the 2002 Olympics. |
Direct speech
Quotes are not used to mark paragraphed direct quotation, which is instead separated out by the em-dash (—):
| — Я Вас обожаю! — сказал мишка лисе. | "I adore you!" said the bear to the fox. |
Quotation
Inlined direct speech and other quotation is marked at the first level by angled brackets («»), and by lowered and raised reversed double quotes („“) at the second:
| Гончаров начинает «Фрегат „Паллада“» словами: «Меня удивляет». | Goncharov begins his "Frigate 'Pallada'" with the words: "I am surprised." |
Unlike American English, the period or other terminal punctuation is placed outside the quotation. As the example above demonstrates, the quotes are often used to mark the names of entities introduced with the generic word.
Parenthetical expressions
These are introduced with the international symbol of parentheses (). However, their use is typically restricted to pure asides, rather than, as in English, to mark apposition.
Controversies
Spelling
As in many languages, the spelling was formerly quite more phonetic and less consistent. However, the influence of the major grammarians, from Meletius Smotrisky (1620s) to Lomonosov (1750s) to Grot (1880s), ensured a more careful application of morphology and etymology. Orthography has remained quite phonetic simply because the phonology has not undergone fundamental changes since the fourteenth century at least.
Today, the balance between the morphological and phonetic principles is well established. The etymological inflexions are maintained by tradition and habit, although their non-phonetic spelling has occasionally prompted controversial calls for reform (as in the periods 1900-1910, 1960-1964). The two primary areas where the spelling is utterly inconsistent and therefore controversial are:
- the spelling of foreign words, for which precise transliteration sometimes looks quite ugly in Cyrillic;
- the complexity (or even correctness) of some of the grammatical principles, especially with respect to the strung-together, hyphenated, or disjoint writing of the constituent morphemes.
These two points have been the topic of scientific debate since at least the middle of the nineteenth century.
In the past, uncertainty abounded about which of the ordinary or iotated/palatalizing series of vowels to allow after the sibilant consonants ж , ш , щ , ц , ч , which are not standard in their hard/soft pairs. This problem, however, appears to have been resolved by applying the phonetic and grammatical principles (and to a lesser extent, the etymological) to define a complicated though internally consistent set of spelling rules.
In 2000-2001, a minor revision of the 1956 codification was proposed. It met with public protest and has not been formally adopted.
Punctuation
Punctuation naturally evolves, and has not been so controversial in Russian orthography as spelling. The ability to punctuate (not merely to spell) correctly has been taken as the standard of the literate Russian.
History
Main article:
The modern system of spelling was rationalized by Grot in the 1880s. The spelling reform of 1918, though drastically changing the appearance of the language by eliminating four letters, did not introduce fundamental theoretical changes to the principles he laid down.
Contemporary spelling and punctuation follow the 1956 rules, which were aimed at codifying existing practice rather than establishing new principles.
See also
External links
- GRAMOTA.ru— a reference and tutorial site on Russian literacy sponsored by the Russian government (in Russian)
- The full text of the 1956 Russian orthographic codification (in Russian)
- J.K. Grot, Russkoe Pravopisanie (standard guide to the pre-reform rules), 1894 (DJVU file, in Russian, pre-1918 orthography)
"Russian orthography"