Rajaraja Chola I

Rajaraja Chola I was the king of the Chola dynasty, who ruled between 985 and 1014 CE. Rajaraja, the greatest of the all the Chola rulers of the Vijayalaya dynasty, laid the foundation for the growth of the Chola kingdom into an empire. Rajaraja conquered the kingdoms of southern India and the Chola Empire expanded as far as Sri Lanka in the south, and Kalinga (Orissa) in the northeast. He fought many battles with the Chalukyas in the north and the Pandyas in the south. By conquering Vengi, Rajaraja laid the foundations for the Chalukya Chola dynasty. He invaded Sri Lanka and started a century long Chola occupation of the island.

He streamlined the administrative system in the country with the division of the country into various districts and by standardising revenue collection through systematic land surveys. He built the magnificent Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur and through it enabled wealth distribution amongst his subjects. His successes enabled the splendid achievements of his son Rajendra Chola I under whom the empire attained the greatest extent and carried its conquest beyond the seas.

Popular Prince

Rajaraja was the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola and Vanavan Mahadevi. Rajaraja was also known by his birth name Arunmolivarman came to the throne at the death of Uttama Chola after a long apprenticeship of a heir apparent. During the lifetime of his father Sundara Chola, Arunmoli had carved a name for himself by his exploits in the battles against the Sinhala and Pandyan armies. Sundara Chola’s eldest son and heir apparent Aditya II was assassinated in a conspiracy possibly hatched by Uttama Chola. Uttama, as the only child of Gandaraditya, wanted the Chola throne as he felt it was his birthright. After the death of Aditya II, Uttama forced Sundara Chola to declare himself heir apparent ahead of the popular Arunmoli. Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscriptions say:

"…Though his subjects…entreated Arunmolivarman, he…did not desire the kingdom for himself even inwardly as long as his paternal uncle coveted^*…".

Uttama made a compromise deal with Sundara Chola that Uttama will be succeeded not by his son but by Arunmoli. Thiruvalangadu inscription again states:

"Having noticed by the marks (on his body) that Arunmoli was the very Vishnu, the protector of the three worlds, descended on earth, ^* installed him in the position of yuvaraja (heir apparent) and himself bore the burn of ruling the earth…"

Military Conquests

Southern Wars

The southern kingdoms of Pandyas, Cheras and the Singhalas were often allied against the Cholas. It was the case when Rajaraja came to the throne. Rajaraja’s initial campaigns were against the combined Pandya and Chera armies. There is no evidence of any military campaign undertaken by Rajara until the eighth year of his reign. During this period he was probably engaged in recruiting an efficient army and otherwise preparing himself for the struggle, which he must have thought he should undertake before the Chola power and prestige could be restored.

Kandalur Salai

The very first military achievement of Rajaraja’s reign was the campaign in the Kerala country c 994 C.E.. Rajaraja’s early inscriptions use the descriptive ‘Kandalur salai kalamarutta’ (காந்தளுர் சாலைக் களமறுத்த). In this campaign Rajara is said to have destroyed a fleet in the port of Kandalur, which appears to have been situated in the dominions of the Chera King Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978 – 1036 C.E.). Inscriptions found around Thanjavur frequent references are made to the conquest of the Chera king and the Pandyas in Malai-nadu (the west coast of South India). Kandalur-Salai, which is stated to belong to the Chera king in later inscriptions, was probably held by the Pandyas when it was conquered by Rajaraja. Some years’ fighting apparently was necessary before the conquest could be completed and the conquered country could be sufficiently settled for its administration could be properly organised. In the war against the Pandyas Rajaraja seized the Pandya king Amarabhujanga and the Chola general captured the port of Virinam. To commomorate these conquests Rajaraja assumed the title Mummudi-Chola, (the Chola king who wears three crowns - the Chera, Chola and Pandya).

Malai Nadu

In a battle against the Cheras sometime before 1008 C.E., Rajaraja stormed and captured Udagai in the western hill country. Kalingattuparani, a war poem written during the reign of Kulothunga Chola I hints at a slight on the Chola ambassador to the Chera court as the reason for this sacking of Udagai. Rajaraja’s son Rajendra was the Chola general leading the army in this battle. The Tamil poem Vikkirama Cholan ula evidently refers to the reign of Rajaraja when it mentions the conquest of Malai nadu and the killing of 18 princes in retaliation of the insult offered to an envoy.

Invasion of Lanka

To eliminate the remaining actor in the triumvirate, Rajaraja invaded Sri Lanka in 993 C.E. The copper-plate inscription mention that Rajaraja’s powerful army crossed the ocean by ships and burnt up the king of Lanka. Mahinda V was the king of Sinhalas. C. 991C.E. Mahinda’s army mutinied with help from mercenaries from Keralas. Mahinda had to seek refuge in the hill country of Rohana. Rajaraja utilised this opportunity and invaded the island. Chola armies occupied the northern half of Lanka and named the dominion ‘Mummudi Chola Mandalam’. Anuradhapura, the 1000-year-old capital of Sinhala kings was destroyed. The destruction was so extensive the city was abandoned. Cholas made the city of Polonnaruwa as their capital and renamed it Jananathamangalam. The choice of this city demonstrates the desire of Rajaraja to conquer the entire island. Rajaraja also built a Temple for Siva in Pollonaruwa.

Northern Wars

Rajaraja also expanded his conquests in the north and northwest. The regions of Gangapadi, Nolambapadi, Tadigaipadi came into Chola possession during Rajaraja.

Ganga Wars

Before his 14th year c. 998 – 999 C.E., Rajaraja conquered Gangapadi and Nurambapadi, which formed part of the present Karnataka State. This conquest was facilitated by the fact the Cholas never lost their hold of the Ganga country from the efforts of Sundara Chola. Nolambas where were the feudatories of Ganga could have turned against their overlords and adided the Cholas to conquer the Gangas, who were the chief bulwark against the Chola armies in the northwest.

The invasion of the Ganga country was a complete success and the entire Ganga country was under the Chola rule for next century. The easy success against the Gangas was also due to the disappearance of Rashtrakutas c. 973 C.E. as they were conquered by the western Chalukyas. From this time, Chalukyas became the main antagonists of Cholas in the northwest.

Western Chalukya Wars

C. 996 C.E. Satyasraya became the Chalukya king.

The circumstances that led to the war with the Chalukya king Satyasraya are not clear. The conquest of Gangapadi and Nulambapadi must have brought the Cholas into direct contact with the Western Chalukyas. Both the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas were powerful and strong and must have been looking for an opportunity to measure their respective strength. Under these circumstances any slight cause would have been enough to provoke a quarrel. Also, the Chalukyas were being pressed from the north by the hostile Paramaras of Malwa and must have found it difficult to sustain against themselves against two powerful enemies attacking from two opposite directions.

An inscription of Rajaraja from c. 1003 C.E. asserts that he captured by force Rattapadi. Rajendra led the Chola armies against the Western Chalukyas. According to the Hottur inscriptions of Satyasraya, dated 1007 – 1008 C.E., the Chola king with a force numbering nine hundred thousand had ‘pillaged the whole country, had slaughtered the women, the children and the Brahmans, and, taking the girls to wife, had destroyed their caste’. Rajaraja’s inscriptions indicate that the Chola army elephants wrought havoc on the banks of the river Tungabhadra. Rajaraja however could not capture the Western Chalukya capital Manyakheta. Though overwhelmed by the strength and rapidity of the Chola advance Satyasraya soon recovered and by hard fighting rolled back the invasion.

Rajaraja evidently attached much importance to his victory over Satyasraya, as he is said to have presented gold flowers to the Rajarajesvara temple on his return from the expedition. At the end of this war the southern banks of the Thungabadhra river became the frontier between these two empires.

War against Vengi

The Eastern Chalukya dynasty came into existence when Chalukya Pulakesi II conquered Vengi and installed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the king c 624 C.E. During the next three centuries of rule, marked by many wars with the Rashtrakutas, the dynasty had become old and dysfunctional. It was also falling prey to disputed successions and anarchy. Although the Western Chalukyan Satyasraya tried to amalgamate the two dynasties, he was not successful due to the constant battles with the Paramaras and the Cholas.

Rajaraja, who aimed at capturing every province that had ever been held by Parantaka I and extend the empire still further, sent a northern expedition early in his reign. However the actual invasion of Vengi must have occurred at a later date than this expedition. Perhaps the interference of Satyasraya in the Vengi kingdom was the trigger.

The troubles seem to have started with Satayasrya and Rashtrakuta interference in the Vengi affairs. To counter the rising influence of the Western Chalukyas’ Rajaraja supported Saktivarman I, an Eastern Chalukya prince who was in exile in the Chola coutry after the throne was usurped by a minor Rashtrakuta king.

Rajaraja invade Vengi in 999 C.E. to restore Saktivarman to the Eastern Chalukya throne. After many hard battles Saktivarman finally found his position secure on the throne in 1002 C.E. Saktivarman, recognising that he owed everything to Rajaraja, consented to recognise the Chola overlordship.

Origins of the Chalukya Chola dynasty

Even after conquering Vengi, Rajaraja did not bring the Eastern Chalukya kingdom under direct Chola rule. The Vengi kingdom did not become an integral part of the Chola Empire. Unlike the Pandyan and Chera territories, Eastern Chalukyas maintained an independent political existence and remained as a Chola protectorate. A dynastic marriage between the Vengi prince Vimaladitya and Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai sealed the alliance between the two ruling families.

Kalinga conquest

The invasion of the kingdom of Kalinga must have occurred subsequent to the conquest of Vengi. Rajendra Chola, as the commander of the Chola forces invaded and defeated the Andhra king Bhima.

Naval Conquests

One of the last conquests of Rajaraja was the naval conquest of the ‘old islands of the sea numbering 12,000’, the Maldives. We have no further details regarding this expedition, however this is a sufficient indication of the abilities of the Chola Navy, which will be utilised so effectively under Rajendra I. Chola Navy also had played a major role in the invasion of Lanka.

The increasing realisation of the importance of a good Navy and the desire to neutralise the emerging Chera Naval power were probably the reasons for the Kandalur campaign in the early days of Rajaraja’s reign.

Nagapattinam on the Bay of Bengal was the main port of the Cholas and could have been the navy headquarters.

Thanjavur Temple

Rajaraja’s great reign is commemorated by the magnificent Siva temple in Thanjavur, the finest monument of a splendid period of South Indian history and the most beautiful specimen of Tamil architecture at its best. The temple is remarkable alike for its stupendous proportions and for the simplicity of its design. We have no authentic information as to how the colossal labour involved in transporting the huge blocks of granite over great distances was managed, and how the technical problems involved in raising them to their positions, were met.

This great enterprise drew to completion on the 275th day of the 25th year of his reign. After its commemoration the great temple and the capital had close business relations with the rest of the country. Year after year villages from all over the country had to supply men and material for the temple maintenance.

Administration

From the 23rd to the 29th year of Rajaraja’s rule his dominions enjoyed peace and the king apparently devoted his energies to the task of internal administration. The building of the Rajarajesvara temple in Thanjavur and the various endowments and gifts to it must have occupied a prominent place in the king’s mind during these years.

Rajaraja carried out a revenue and settlement during the final years of his reign. Inscriptions found in the Thanjavur temple bear testimony to the accuracy of this operation. Land as small in extent as 1/52,428,800,000 of a ‘veli’ (a land measure) was measured and assessed to revenue. The revenue survey enabled for the confiscation of lands of the defaulting landlords.

Rajaraja also perfected the administrative organization by creating a strong and centralised machinery and by appointing local government authorities. He installed a system of audit and control by which the village assemblies and other public bodies were held to account while not curtailing their autonomy.

Military Organisation

Rajaraja created a powerful standing army and a considerable navy which achieved even greater success under Rajendra than under himself. The prominence given to the army from the conquest of the Pandyas down to the last year of the king’s reign is significant, and shows the spirit with which he treated his soldiers. Evidently Rajaraja gave his army its due share in the glory derived from his extensive conquests. The following regiments are mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions:

Perundanattu Anaiyatkal.
Pandita-Chola-Terinda-villigal.
Uttama- Chola-terinda-Andalagattalar.
Nigarili- Chola terinda-Udanilai-Kudiraichchevagar.
Mummadi- Chola-terinda-Anaippagar.
Vira- Chola-Anukkar.
Parantaka-Kongavalar.
Mummadi- Chola-terinda-parivarattar.
Keralantaka-terinda-parivarattar.
Mulaparivara-vitteru alias Jananatha-terinda-parivarattar.
Singalantaka-terinda-parivarattar.
Sirudanattu Vadugakkalavar.
Valangai-Parambadaigalilar.
Perundanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal.
Sirudanattu-Valangai-Velaikkarappadaigal.
Aragiya- Chola-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Aridurgalanghana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Chandaparakrama-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Ilaiya-Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Kshatriyasikhamani-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Murtavikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Nittavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Rajakanthirava-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Rajaraja-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar
Rajavinoda-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Ranamukha-Bhima-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Vikramabharana-terinda-Valangai-Velaikkarar.
Keralantaka-vasal-tirumeykappar.
Anukka-vasal-tirumeykappar.
Parivarameykappargal.
Palavagai-Parampadaigalilar.

In most of the foregoing names the first portion appears to be the surnames or titles of the king himself or of his son. That these regiments should have been called after the king or his son shows the attachment, which the Chola king bore towards his army.

It may not be unreasonable to suppose that these royal names were pre-fixed to the designations of these regiments after they had distinguished themselves in some engagement or other. It is worthy of note that there are elephant troops, cavalry and foot soldiers among these regiments. To some of these regiments, the management of certain minor shrines of the temple was entrusted and they were expected to provide for the requirements of the shrine. Others among them took money from the temple on interest, which they agreed to pay in cash. We are not, however, told to what productive purpose they applied this money. At any rate all these transactions show that the king created in them an interest in the temple he built.

Officials and Feudatories

Rajendra Chola was made co-regent during the last years of Rajaraja’s rule. He was also the Mahadandanayaka Panchavan Maharaya – supreme commander- of the northern and northwestern dominions.

Paluvettaraiyars from the region of Thiruchirapalli were closely associated with the Cholas from the time of Parantaka I when he married a Paluvettaraiyar princess, were occupying a high position in the Chola administration. They were apparently enjoying full responsibility and administration of the region of Paluvur. One of the names of these feudal chieftains found in inscriptions were Adigal Paluvettaraiyar Kandan Maravan.

Gandaraditya’s son Madurantakan Gandaradityan served in Rajaraja’s court as an important official in the department of temple affairs. He conducted enquiries into temple affairs in various parts of the country, punishing defaulters.

The other names of officials found in the inscriptions are the Bana prince Maravan Narasimhavarman, a general Senapathi Sri Krishnan Raman, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan and Kuruvan Ulagalandan who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Standardised Inscriptions

We owe Rajaraja the desire on his part to record his military achievements in every one of his inscriptions and thus had down to posterity some of the important events of his life. As far as we know at present Rajaraja was the first king of South India to introduce this innovation into his inscriptions. Before his time powerful kings of the Pallava, Pandya and Chola dynasties had reigned in the South, and some of them had made extensive conquests. But none of them seems to have thought of leaving a record on stone of his military achievements.

The idea of Rajaraja to add a short account of his military achievements at the beginning of every one of his inscriptions was entirely his own. His action in this respect is all the more laudable because his successors evidently followed his example and have left us more or less complete records of their conquests. But for the historical introductions, which are often found at the beginning of the Tamil inscriptions of Chola, kings the lithic records of the Tamil country would be of very little value, and consequently even the little advance that has been made in elucidating the history of Southern India would have been well nigh impossible.

Early Tamil records are dated not in the Saka or any other well-known era but in the regnal year of the king to whose time the grants belong, and palaeography is not always a very safe guide in South-Indian history. With the help of the names of contemporary kings of other dynasties mentioned in the historical introductions of the Tamil inscriptions, it has been possible to fix the approximate dates of most of the Chola kings. Consequently, the service, which Rajaraja has rendered to epigraphists in introducing a brief account of his military achievements at the beginning of his stone inscriptions, cannot be overestimated.

The historical side of Rajaraja’s intellectual nature is further manifested in the order, which he issued to have all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple engraved on stone. Rajaraja not only was particular about recording his achievements, but also was equally diligent in preserving the records of his predecessors. For instance, an inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi near Thruchi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.

Religious Policy

An ardent follower of Siva, Rajaraja was, like all the great statesmen of India, tolerant towards other faiths and creeds. He also had several temples for Vishnu constructed. The also encouraged the construction of the Buddhist Chudamani Vihara at the request of the Srivijaya king Sri Maravijayatungavarman. Rajaraja dedicated the proceeds of the revenue from the village of Anaimangalam towards the upkeep of this Vihara.

Personal Life and Family

While we know a lot about Rajaraja’s political and military achievements, we have no authentic description of the king himself. No eyewitness has left a portrait of the king. There is not even an authentic statue or painting of Rajaraja. All that we know of his reign, and that is not little attests to his potent personality and the firm grasp of his intellect.

Rajaraja was born Arunmolivarman and was the third child of Parantaka Sundara Chola. His elder brother Aditya II was assassinated c. 969 C.E. Rajaraja must have spend a lot of time in the company of Kundavai, his elder sister and must have much admired her. Kundavai married Vandiyadevar who was a Bana prince. Kundavai spent her later life in Tanjore with her younger brother and she even survived him. We may suppose that Rajaraja entertained a high regard for her and that she exercised considerable influence over him and contributed in no small degree to the formation of his character.

The affection he lavished on Kundavai, after whom he named one of his daughters, and the privileged position accorded to his grand-aunt Sembiyanmahadevi, the mother of Uttama Chola indicate that he was a great human and good man as well as a far sighted ruler.

Rajaraja had a number of wives, but apparently only a few children. Lokamahadevi, Cholamahadevi, Trailokyamahadevi, Panchavanmahadevi, Abhimanavalli, Iladamadeviyar (Latamahadevi) and Prithivimahadevi are known from the Tanjore Temple inscriptions. Panchavanmahadevi assisted Rajaraja in day-to-day decision makings in the rule. Each of them set up a number of images in the Rajarajesvara temple and made gifts to them. Lokamahadevi was probably the chief queen. She built the shrine called Uttara-Kailasa in the Panchanadesvara temple at Tiruvaiyaru near Thanjavur and made many gifts to it. The shrine was in existence already in the 21st year of the king’s reign and was then called Lokamahadevisvara after the queen.

The mother of Rajendra I, the only known son of Rajaraja, was Lokamahadevi. Rajaraja must have had at least three daughters of whom the names of two are known: Kundavi, who married the Eastern Chalukya prince Vimaladitya and the second daughter Madevadigal, who embraced buddhism and did not marry. Rajaraja died in 1014 C.E. at and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.

References in Popular Tamil Fiction

Rajaraja Cholan - Drama, written by Kalaimamani Aru. Ramanathan, called as Kathal Ramanathan. (TKS Group made numerous Stage Shows on this Drama and later it was taken as Movie acted by Shivaji Ganesan). This Drama as a book Published by Prema Pirasuram,Chennai-24. is made as a Study Material in South Indian Universities.
Arunmolivarman, is the hero of Kalki Krishnamurthy’s historical Romance Ponniyin Selvan. The heart of the story revolves around the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditya II and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne. Kalki imagines Arunmoli sacrificing his rightful claim to the throne by crowning Uttama during his own coronation.
Balakumaran has also written the story Udaiyar based on the life of Rajaraja chola. While Kalki's novel describes his life at his youth at the time of the death of Aditya Karikala, Balakumaran deals with Rajaraja Chola's life after he becomes the emperor.
Sujatha wrote a novel "Kandalur Vasanthakumaran Kathai", which deals with the situations leading to his war at the Kandhalur, a sea port.

References

Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (1955). A History of South India, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002).
South Indian Inscriptions - http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/, http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_2/introduction.html

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