Nitrogen is a chemical element which has the symbol N and atomic number 7 in the periodic table. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% percent of Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen is a constituent element of all living tissues and amino acids. Many industrially important compounds, such as ammonia, nitric acid, and cyanides, contain nitrogen.

Notable characteristics

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Nitrogen is a non-metal, with an electronegativity of 3.0. It has five electrons in its outer shell and is therefore trivalent in most compounds. Nitrogen condenses at 77° K at atmospheric pressure and freezes at 63° K. Liquid nitrogen is a common cryogen.

Occurrence

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Nitrogen is the largest single component of the Earth's atmosphere (78.084% by volume, 75.5% by weight).

Compounds that contain this element have been observed in outer space. ¹⁴Nitrogen is created as part of the fusion processes in stars. Nitrogen is a large component of animal waste (for example, guano), usually in the form of urea, uric acid, and compounds of these nitrogenous products.

Molecular nitrogen is a major constituent of Titan's thick atmosphere, and has been detected in interstellar space by David Knauth and coworkers using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer.

See also Nitrate minerals, Ammonium minerals.

Isotopes

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There are two stable isotopes of nitrogen: ¹⁴N and ¹⁵N. By far the most common is ¹⁴N (99.634%), which is produced in the CNO cycle in stars and the remaining is ¹⁵N. Of the ten isotopes produced synthetically, ¹³N has a half life of nine minutes and the remaining isotopes have half lives on the order of seconds or less. Biologically-mediated reactions (e.g., assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification) strongly control nitrogen dynamics in the soil. These reactions almost always result in ¹⁵N enrichment of the substrate and depletion of the product. Although precipitation often contains subequal quantities of ammonium and nitrate, because ammonium is preferentially retained by the canopy relative to atmospheric nitrate, most of the atmospheric nitrogen that reaches the soil surface is in the form of nitrate. Soil nitrate is preferentially assimilated by tree roots relative to soil ammonium. The molecular nitrogen in Earth's atmosphere is 0.73% comprised of the isotopomer ¹⁴N¹⁵N and almost all the rest is ¹⁴N₂.

History

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Nitrogen (Latin nitrum, Greek Nitron meaning "native soda", "genes", "forming") is formally considered to have been discovered by Daniel Rutherford in 1772, who called it noxious air or fixed air. That there was a fraction of air that did not support combustion was well known to the late 18th century chemist. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as azote, from the Greek word αζωτος meaning "lifeless". Animals died in it, and it was the principal component of air in which animals had suffocated and flames had burned to extinction. This term has become the French word for "nitrogen" and later spread out to many other languages.

Compounds of nitrogen were known in the Middle Ages. The alchemists knew nitric acid as aqua fortis (strong water). The mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids was known as aqua regia (royal water), celebrated for its ability to dissolve gold (the king of metals). The earliest industrial and agricultural applications of nitrogen compounds used it in the form of saltpeter (sodium- or potassium nitrate), notably in gunpowder, and much later, as fertilizer, and later still, as a chemical feedstock.

Biological role

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Nitrogen is an essential part of amino acids and nucleic acids both of which are essential to all life. Specific bacteria (e.g. Rhizobium trifolium) possess nitrogenase enzymes which can fix atmospheric nitrogen (see nitrogen fixation) into a form (ammonium ion) which is chemically useful to higher organisms. This process requires a large amount of energy and anoxic conditions. Such bacteria may be free in the soil (e.g. azotobacter) but normally exist in a symbiotic relationship in the root nodules of leguminous plants (e.g. clover or the soya bean plant). Nitrogen fixating bacteria can be symbiotic with a number of unrelated plant species. Common examples are legumes, alders, lichens, casuarina, myrica, liverwort, and gunnera.

As part of the symbiotic relationship, the plant subsequently converts the ammonium ion to nitrogen oxides and amino acids to form proteins and other biologically useful molecules, such as alkaloids. In return, the plant secretes sugars to the symbiotic bacteria.

Some plants are able to assimilate nitrogen directly in the form of nitrates which may be present in soil from natural mineral deposits, artificial fertilizers, animal waste, or organic decay (as the product of bacteria, but not bacteria specifically associated with the plant). Nitrates absorbed in this fashion are converted to nitrites by the enzyme nitrate reductase, and then converted to ammonia by another enzyme called nitrite reductase.

Nitrogen compounds are basic building blocks in animal biology. Animals use nitrogen-containing amino acids from plant sources, as starting materials for all nitrogen-compound animal biochemistry, including the manufacture of proteins and nucleic acids. Many saltwater fish manufacture large amounts of trimethylamine oxide to protect them from the high osmotic effects of their environment (conversion of this compound to dimethylamine is responsible for the early odor in unfresh saltwater fish: PMID 15186102). In animals, the free radical molecule nitric oxide (NO), which is derived from an amino acid, serves as an important regulatory molecule for circulation. Animal metabolism of NO results in production of nitrite. Animal metabolism of nitrogen in proteins generally results in excretion of urea, while animal metabolism of nucleic acids results in excretion of uric acid. The characteristic odor of animal flesh decay is caused by nitrogen-containing long-chain amines, such as putrescene and cadaverine.

Modern applications

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Nitrogen gas is acquired for industrial purposes by the fractional distillation of liquid air, or by mechanical means using gaseous air (i.e. pressurised reverse osmosis membrane or pressure swing adsorption). Commercial nitrogen is often a byproduct of air-processing for industrial concentration of oxygen for steelmaking and other purposes.

Molecular nitrogen (gas and liquid)

Nitrogen gas has a wide variety of applications, including serving as a more inert replacement for air where oxidation is undesirable;

• to preserve the freshness of packaged or bulk foods (by delaying rancidity and other forms of oxidative damage)
• on top of liquid explosives for safety
• in the production of electronic parts such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits
• dried and pressurized, as a dielectric gas for high voltage equipment
• in the manufacture of stainless steel
• for filling automotive and aircraft tiresdue to its inertness and lack of moisture or oxidative qualities, as opposed to air (though this is not necessary for consumer automobiles ^{[http://www.cartalk.com/content/columns/Archive/1997/September/05.html}) Contrary to some claims that nitrogen will diffuse more rapidly through rubber tires than air (and oxygen), nitrogen molecules are less likely to escape from the inside of a tire compared to the traditional air mixture used. Air consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen molecules are larger than oxygen molecules and therefore, all else being equal, larger molecules diffuse through porous substances slower than smaller molecules.

  A further example of its versatility is its use as a preferred alternative to carbon dioxide to pressurize kegs of some beers, particularly thicker stouts and Scottish and English ales, due to the smaller bubbles it produces, which make the dispensed beer smoother and headier. A modern application of a pressure sensitive nitrogen capsule known commonly as a "widget" now allows nitrogen charged beers to be packaged in cans and bottles.

  Liquid nitrogen is produced industrially in large quantities by distillation from liquid air and is often referred to by the quasi-formula LN₂ (but is more accurately written N₂(l) ). It is a cryogenic fluid which can cause instant frostbite on direct contact with living tissue. When appropriately insulated from ambient heat it serves as a compact and readily transported source of nitrogen gas without pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water as it boils at (77 K, -196 °C or -320 °F) makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications as an open-cycle refrigerant, including;

  • the immersion freezing and transportation of food products
  • the cryopreservation of blood, reproductive cells (sperm and egg), and other biological samples and materials (see Liquid nitrogen tank.JPG at right)
  • the cryonic preservation of humans and pets in the hope of future revival with molecular repair technology
  • in the study of cryogenics
  • for demonstrations in science education
  • as a coolant for highly sensitive sensors and low-noise amplifiers
  • in dermatology for removing unsightly or potentially malignant skin lesions such as warts and actinic keratosis
  • as a cooling supplement for overclocking a central processing unit, a graphics processing unit, or another type of computer hardware
  • as a cooling medium during machining of high strength materials.

  Simple nitrogen compounds

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  The main neutral hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH₃), although hydrazine (N₂H₄) is also commonly used. Ammonia is more basic than water by 6 orders of magnitude. In solution ammonia forms the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺). Liquid ammonia (b.p. 240 K) is amphiprotic (displaying either Brønsted-Lowry acidic or basic character) and forms ammonium and less commonly) amide ions (NH₂^-); both amides and nitride (N^3-) salts are known, but decompose in water. Singly, doubly, triply and quadruply substituted alkyl compounds of ammonia are called amines (four substitutions, to form commerically and biologically important quarternary amines, results in a positively charged nitrogen, and thus a water-soluble, or at least amphiphilic, compound). Larger chains, rings and structures of nitrogen hydrides are also known, but are generally unstable.

  Other classes of nitrogen anions (negatively charged ions) are azides (N₃^-), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide. Another molecule of the same structure is dinitrogen monoxide (N₂O), also known as laughing gas. This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are nitrogen monoxide (NO) (known more commonly as nitric oxide in biology) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), which both contain an unpaired electron. The latter shows some tendency to dimerize and is an important component of smog.

  The more standard oxides, dinitrogen trioxide (N₂O₃) and dinitrogen pentoxide (N₂O₅), are actually fairly unstable and explosive. The corresponding acids are nitrous (HNO₂) and nitric acid (HNO₃), with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates. Nitric acid is one of the few acids stronger than hydronium, and is a fairly strong oxidizing agent.

  Nitrogen can also be found in organic compounds. Common nitrogen functional groups include: amines, amides, nitro groups, imines, and enamines. The amount of nitrogen in a chemical substance can be determined by the Kjeldahl method.

  See also the category Nitrogen compounds.

  Nitrogen compounds of notable economic importance

  Molecular nitrogen in the atmosphere is relatively non-reactive due to its strong bond, and the (N₂) plays an inert role in the human body, being neither produced or destroyed. In nature, nitrogen is slowly converted into biologically (and industrially) useful compounds by some living organisms, notably certain bacteria (i.e. nitrogen fixing bacteria - see Biological role above). Molecular nitrogen is also released into the atmosphere in the process of decay, in dead plant and animal tissues. The ability to combine or fix molecular nitrogen is a key feature of modern industrial chemistry, where nitrogen and natural gas are converted into ammonia via the Haber process. Ammonia, in turn, can be used directly (primarily as a fertilizer, and in the synthesis of nitrated fertilizers), or as a precursor of many other important materials including explosives, largely via the production of nitric acid by the Ostwald process.

  The salts of nitric acid include important compounds such as potassium nitrate (or saltpeter, important historically for its use in gunpowder) and ammonium nitrate, an important fertilizer and explosive (see ANFO). Various other nitrated organic compounds, such as nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene, and nitrocellulose, are used as explosives and propellants for modern firearms. Nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent in liquid fueled rockets. Hydrazine and hydrazine derivatives find use as rocket fuels. In all of these compounds, the basic instability and tendency to burn or explode is derived from the fact that nitrogen is present as an oxide, and not as the far more stable nitrogen molecule (N₂) which is a product of the compound's decomposition. When nitrates burn or explode, the formation of the powerful triple bond in the (N₂) which results, produces most of the energy of the reaction.

  Nitrogen is a constituent of molecules in every major drug class in pharmacology and medicine. Nitrous oxide (N₂0) was discovered early in the 19th century to be a partial anesthetic, though it was not used as a surgical anesthetic until later. Called "laughing gas", it was found capable of inducing a state of social disinhibition resembling drunkenness. Other notable nitrogen-containing drugs are drugs derived from plant alkaloids, such as morphine (there exist many alkaloids known to have pharmacological effects; in some cases they appear natural chemical defences of plants against predation). Nitrogen containing drugs include all of the major classes of antibiotics, and organic nitrate drugs like nitroglycerin and nitroprusside which regulate blood pressure and heart action by mimicing the action of nitric oxide.

  Precautions

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  Rapid release of nitrogen gas into an enclosed space can displace oxygen, and therefore represents an asphyxiation hazard. An example occured shortly before the launch of the first Space Shuttle mission in 1981, when two technicians were killed in a space located in the Shuttle's Mobile Launch Platform that was pressurized with pure nitrogen as a precaution against fire.

  When breathed at high partial pressures (more than about 3 atmospheres, encountered a depths below about 30 m in diving) nitrogen begins to act as an anesthetic agent. As such, it can cause nitrogen narcosis, a temporary semi-anesthetized condition of mental impairment similar to that caused by nitrous oxide.

  Nitrogen also dissolves in the bloodstream, and rapid decompression (particularly in the case of divers ascending too quickly, or astronauts decompressing too quickly from cabin pressure to spacesuit pressure) can lead to a potentially fatal condition called decompression sickness (formerly known as cassion sickness or more commonly, the "bends"), when nitrogen bubbles form in the bloodstream.

  Direct skin contact with liquid nitrogen causes severe frostbite (cryogenic burns) within moments to seconds, depending on form of liquid nitrogen (liquid vs. mist) and surface area of the nitrogen-soaked material (soaked clothing or cotton causing more rapid damage than a spill of direct liquid to skin, which for a few seconds is protected by the Leidenfrost effect ).

  See also,

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  • Nutrient
  • Nitrogen cycle
  • NOx
  • Nitrous oxide

  References

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  • Los Alamos National Laboratory – Nitrogen
  • Chemistry of the Elements, N. N. Greenwood and A. Earnshaw. ISBN 0-08-022057-6
  • Biochemistry, R.H. Garrett and C.M. Grisham. 2nd edition, 1999. ISBN 0-03-022318-0

  External links

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  • WebElements.com – Nitrogen
  • It's Elemental – Nitrogen
  • Schenectady County Community College – Nitrogen
  • Nitrogen N2 Properties, Uses, Applications
  • Computational Chemistry Wiki
  • Handling procedures for liquid nitrogen
  • Material Safety Data Sheet

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