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The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the westward migration of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who used handcarts to transport their supplies and belongings while walking from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and lasted until 1860. Nearly 3,000 pioneers from England, Wales, and Scandinavia made the journey to Utah in 10 handcart companies. For two of the companies, the Willie and Martin handcart companies, the trek led to disaster after they started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and bitterly cold temperatures in the Rocky Mountains of central Wyoming. Of the 980 pioneers in the two companies, more than 210 died along the way.
Need for handcart companies
Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the church began encouraging its converts in the British Isles and Europe to emigrate to Utah. From 1849 to 1855 about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to Utah using conventional ox-and-wagon transportation. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the church established the Perpetual Emigration Fund to provide financial assistance for poor Mormon emigrants.
When contributions and loan repayments to the Perpetual Emigration Fund dropped off in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah, Brigham Young, the church's president, decided to implement a plan of using handcarts to cut the costs of the migration. Many of the Latter-day Saints who remained in Europe were poor, so a low-cost means of transport was needed to allow large numbers of them to emigrate. Young also believed that the journey would be completed more quickly with handcarts than with oxen and wagons.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 28-31.
Young proposed the new plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards, President of the European Mission, in September 1855. His letter was published in the Millennial Star (the church's England-based periodical) of December 22 1855 along with an editorial by Richards endorsing the project. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced to two-thirds of the previous cost. The response was overwhelming—in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 29-34, 46.
Outfitting
Emigrants would depart from an English port (generally Liverpool) and travel by ship to New York or Boston. The emigrants would then travel by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa—the western terminus of the rail line—where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies.
Built to Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow, with two wheels five feet in diameter and a single axle four and 1/2 feet wide, weighing 60 pounds. Running along each side of the bed were seven-foot pull shafts ending with a three foot crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about 3 feet by 4 feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with 8 inch (0.2 m) walls. The handcarts were designed to carry up to 500 pounds (227 kg) of supplies and luggage. Carts used in the first year's migration were made entirely of wood ("Iowa hickory or oak"); in the later years a stronger design was substituted that included metal elements.
The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five persons were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, slept 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captin of a hundred. Provisions for each hundred emigrants were carried in an oxen drawn wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains.
1856: First three companies
The first two ships departed England in late March and in mid-April and sailed to Boston. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City, where they constructed their handcarts and were outfitted with supplies before beginning their trek of about 1,300 miles (2,093 km).
The emigrants from the first two ships, about 815 in number, were organized into the first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth, Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker, who were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah. The captains were experienced travelers who were familiar with the route. The companies also appointed sub-captains, who generally also were returning missionaries, for each 100 emigrants.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 53-59.
Across Iowa they followed an existing road about 275 miles (443 km) to Council Bluffs following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6. After crossing the Missouri River, they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska (modern-day Omaha) for repairs, before beginning the remaining 1,030-mile (1,658 km) journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City.Kimball (1979).
The companies made good time and their trips were largely uneventful. Pushing and pulling handcarts was difficult work for many of the emigrants, a diverse group that included many children and a number of elderly individuals. Journals and recollections indicate that there were periods of illness and hunger. Several deaths occurred along the way—Hafen and Hafen * (1981) list 13 deaths from the first company, 7 from the second, and "less than 7" from the third. Most companies traveling the Emigrant Trail suffered some loss of life. The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded to have demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 59-79.
Brief description of the companies
First handcart company Source is Hafen and Hafen * (1981), except for counts of emigrants and deaths for the Willie and Martin Companies.Captain: Edmund Ellsworth
Ship: Enoch Train, sailed March 23 1856 to Boston
Arrived in Iowa City: May 12
Departed Iowa City: June 9
Departed Florence, Nebraska: July 20
Number of individuals: 274
Number who died en route: 13
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 26 Second handcart company
Captain: Daniel D. McArthur
Ships: Enoch Train, sailed March 23 1856 to Boston; S. Curling, sailed April 19 to Boston
Arrived in Iowa City: passengers from Enoch Train – May 12; passengers from S. Curling – early June
Departed Iowa City: June 11
Departed Florence: July 24
Number of individuals: 221
Number who died en route: 7
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 26
Third handcart company (or Welsh company, since most originated from Wales)
Captain: Edward Bunker
Ship: S. Curling, sailed April 19 1856 to Boston
Arrived in Iowa City: early June
Departed Iowa City: June 23
Departed Florence: July 30
Number of individuals: 320
Number who died en route: less than 7
Arrived in Salt Lake City: October 2
1856: Willie and Martin handcart companies
The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship, Thornton, carrying the emigrants who would become the Willie Company, did not leave England until May 4, and another three weeks passed before the Horizon, carrying the emigrants who would form the Martin Company, departed. The late departures may have resulted from the difficulties of dealing with the unexpected demand and in procuring ships, but the results would be tragic.Hafen and Hafen (1981), p. 91.
Dealing with slow communication in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the church agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and had to make frantic preparations for their arrival. Critical weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies. When they reached Florence, repairs were required on the poorly built carts and additional time was lost.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 92-94.
Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate the wisdom of such a late departure. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, argued that such a late departure with a company consisting of elderly, women, and young children would lead to suffering, sickness, and death; he urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. All of the other church elders, however, argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority of the company, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company left on August 27. Two ox-and-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed behind the Martin Company.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 96-97.
Near Wood River, Nebraska, a nearby herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the ox wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour.Hafen and Hafen (1981), p. 100.
In early September Franklin D. Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 97-98, 119; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), p. 5.
In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming, where they expected to be restocked with provisions, but no provisions were there for them. The companies had to cut back food rations, hoping that their supplies would last until help could be sent from Utah. To lighten their loads, the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets that would soon be desperately needed. Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 101, 108; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 3-4.
On October 4 the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with Young and other church leaders. The next morning the church was meeting in a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on the church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7 the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagonloads of food and supplies pulled by 4-mule teams and 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. They elected George D. Grant as their captain. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were on the road.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 119-125; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 5-11.
Meanwhile, the Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering bitterly cold temperatures. On October 17 a severe snowstorm struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, left them with a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company.The various sources disagree regarding the identities of the members of first "express team" that first met the Willie Company. Hafen and Hafen * (1981), quoting emigrant John Chislett, name Joseph Young and Stephen Taylor. Jones (1890), a member of the rescue party, names Cyrus Wheelock and Stephen Taylor, and Bartholomew and Arrington (1992) name Joseph Young, Abel Garr, and Cyrus Wheelock. The members of the Willie Company had just reached the end of their flour supplies. They began slaughtering the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained while their death toll mounted. On October 20 Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 101-107, 126; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 11-17.
On October 19, the Martin Company was about 125 miles (201 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming. Many members of the Martin Company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party was sent forward consisting of Joseph A. Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for 9 days until the three scouts arrived on October 28. During those 9 days, 56 members of the company died. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. Three days later the rescue party arrived and led the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies on to Devil's Gate.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 108-116, 126; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 21-25.
Captain George D. Grant, who headed one of the rescue parties, reported to President Young:
- It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from *; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by the wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing. (Hafen and Hafen, p. 228)
At Devil's Gate the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group would remain at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. Another blizzard struck the Martin Company on November 4, forcing them to halt for another five days at Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 132-134; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 25-28.
The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through more snow and severe weather while their members continued to suffer death from disease and exposure. The Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9; 68 members of the company had lost their lives.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 127-131; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 17-19.
Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. Unfortunately, after passing Fort Bridger the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company, but several days had been lost. On November 18 the backup party met the Martin Company with the greatly needed supplies. At last all the members of the handcart party were now able to ride in wagons. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the handcart company had lost their lives. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 134-138; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 28-37.
After the companies arrived in Utah, the residents generously opened their homes to the arriving emigrants, feeding and caring for them over the winter. The emigrants would eventually go on to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 138-140; Bartholomew and Arrington (1993), pp. 39-42.
Brief description of the companies
Fourth handcart company (or Willie Company) Source for counts of emigrants and deaths of Willie and Martin Companies is Christy (1992).Captain: James G. Willie
Ship: Thornton, sailed May 4 1856 to New York
Arrived in Iowa City: June 26
Departed Iowa City: July 15
Departed Florence: August 17
Number of individuals: about 500 left Iowa City; 404 left Florence
Number who died en route: 68
Arrived in Salt Lake City: November 9
Fifth handcart company (or Martin Company)
Captain: Edward Martin
Ship: Horizon, sailed May 25 1856 to Boston
Arrived in Iowa City: July 8
Departed Iowa City: July 28
Departed Florence: August 27
Number of individuals: 576
Number who died en route: at least 145
Arrived in Salt Lake City: November 30
1857–60: Last five companies
A number of lessons had been learned from the 1856 disaster that allowed the church to continue the handcart system while avoiding another disaster. Never again would a handcart company depart Florence later than July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs. The handcarts would now be regularly greased. Arrangements would be made to replenish supplies along the route.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 143-144.
By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years would have to pay their own way. Needless to say, there was a sharp drop-off in the number of emigrants. Nevertheless, two companies with about 480 emigrants made the trek. Both companies arrived in Salt Lake City by September 13. Perhaps the most notable incident was when a captain of the U.S. Army's Utah Expedition, on its way to Utah to confront Young and the Latter-day Saints, donated an ox to the hungry emigrants.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 153-164.
With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the church called off all European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants were now able to travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they would travel by riverboat to Florence where they would be outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously short, so they cut back on rations. When they reached Devil's Gate the last flour was distributed. Some of the emigrants recalled an incident in which a group of rough mountain men fed the hungry emigrants. One of them then asked a young woman from the party to stay with him, which the tired woman agreed to do. (Another version of the story had two young women marrying two mountain men.) The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions finally rescued the famished emigrants.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 165-178.
The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, again following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey continued to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 179-190.
After 1860 handcarts were no longer used. The church implemented a new system of emigration, in which wagon trains would travel east from Salt Lake City in the spring and return with emigrants in the summer. While the transcontinental railroad was being constructed, the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, shortening the trip.Hafen and Hafen (1981), pp. 191-192.
Brief description of the companies
Sixth handcart companyCaptain: Israel Evans
Ship: George Washington, sailed March 27 1857 to Boston
Arrived in Iowa City: April 30
Departed Iowa City: May 22
Departed Florence: June 20
Number of individuals: 149
Number who died en route: Unknown (at least 1)
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 11
Seventh handcart company (Scandinavian Company)
Captain: Christian Christiansen
Ship: L.N. Hvidt, sailed April 18 1857 from Copenhagen to Britain
Ship: Westmoreland, sailed April 25 to Philadelphia
Arrived in Iowa City: June 9
Departed Iowa City: June 13
Departed Florence: July 7
Number of individuals: about 330
Number who died en route: about 6
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 13
Eighth handcart company
Captain: George Rowley
Ship: William Tapscott, sailed April 11 1859 to New York
Departed Florence: June 9
Number of individuals: 235
Number who died en route: about 5
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 4
Ninth handcart company
Captain: Daniel Robinson
Ship: Underwriter, sailed March 30 1860 to New York
Arrived in Florence: May 12
Departed Florence: June 6
Number of individuals: 233
Number who died en route: 1
Arrived in Salt Lake City: August 27
Tenth handcart company
Captain: Oscar O. Stoddard
Ship: William Tapscott, sailed May 11 1860 to New York
Arrived in Florence: July 1
Departed Florence: July 6
Number of individuals: 124
Number who died en route: 0
Arrived in Salt Lake City: September 24
Legacy
Although fewer than 10 percent of the 1847–68 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness, courage, determination, and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. The handcart treks were a familiar theme in 19th century Mormon folk music and handcart pioneers continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day, church pageants, and similar commemorations. The handcart movement has been a theme in LDS fiction, such as Gerald Lund's historical novel, Fire of the Covenant, and Orson Scott Card's science-fiction short story, "West."
To commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1856 handcart companies, a number of events have been held or are scheduled. The 2006 conference of the Mormon History Association was held in Casper, Wyoming from May 25–May 28 and featured a specially commissioned concert opera by Harriet Petherick Bushman, "1856: Long Walk Home," as well as several research papers on the handcart trek. From June 9–June 11, a symposium and festival were held in Iowa City on the anniversary of the departure of the first company. Gordon B. Hinckley, President of the LDS Church, spoke at the closing ceremony fireside. Filmmaker Lee Groberg is filming a documentary for PBS, "The Sweetwater Rescue," which features reenactments of the rescue of the Willie and Martin companies; the one-hour film is expected to air in October. See Mormon History Association, Iowa City Commemoration, KSL-TV: President Hinckley pays tribute to handcart pioneers, and Deseret News: Documentary explores handcart tragedy.
See also
- History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- Martin's Cove
- Mormon Pioneer
- Mormon Trail
Prominent handcart pioneers
Prominent members of the rescue parties
Notes
References
External links
History of the American West | History of Wyoming | History of the Latter Day Saint movement | Mormon pioneers
"Mormon handcart pioneers"