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The drug cannabis, commonly known as marijuana, is produced from parts of the cannabis plant, primarily the cured flowers and gathered trichomes of the female plant. The major active chemical compound tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC, has psychoactive and medicinal effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. Cannabis has been consumed by humans for thousands of years; in the 20th century there was an upswing in the use of cannabis for recreational and religious purposes.

The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive cannabis products became illegal in many parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, while some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition, others have reduced the priority of enforcement to the point of de facto legality. Cannabis remains illegal in the vast majority of the world's countries.

Wild cannabis

Cannabis still grows wild in many places around the world, the most prominent species being Cannabis sativa. This species has been found growing wild in Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, China, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Russia, Bulgaria, India, and Nepal. Wild Cannabis indica is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as Afghanistan, parts of the US Virgin Islands, and in Morocco. The genetic makeup of wild C. sativa shows great variation from place to place. For example, in warm places, the wild C. sativa can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower bract bears a seed. The wild C. sativa has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild C. indica remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild C. indica. In many areas the wild population of cannabis is threatened due to government eradication and urbanization.

It is to be noted that most wild marijuana has little to no THC, the active ingredient of marijuana which gets people 'high'.

Ancient history

Evidence of the smoking of cannabis can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, where charred hemp seeds were found in a ritual brazier at a burial site in present day Romania .

The most famous users of cannabis were the ancient Hindus. It was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian languages). According to legend, Shiva, the destructive aspect of the Hindu trinity, told his disciples to revere the plant. The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis. It has also been identified with a number of other plants and a mushroom, Amanita muscaria, so the involvement of cannabis cannot be definitively quantified.

Interesting to note is the similar use of cannabis among the citizens of the Persian Empire, who would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive cannibis bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, oftentimes for over 24 hours The ceremony was known as the booz-rooz. (Although we know that rooz is the Persian word for "day", the meaning of "booz" is for now lost to history.)

Cannabis was also known to the Scythians, as well as to the Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers in order to induce trances. The cult of Dionysus, which is believed to have originated in Thrace, is also believed to have inhaled cannabis smoke.

Spiritual use

Cannabis has a long history of spiritual use especially in India, where it has been used by wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries. The most famous religious group to use cannabis in a spiritual context is the Rastafari movement, though it is by no means the only group (e.g. Church of the Universe). Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used by ancient Jews, early Christians, and of early Muslims of the Sufi order. Hashish was used by the Hashshashin, a warrior sect.

Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion, though it is banned in many parts of the world, and in some cases because it is banned (cf. Bob Marley, "the more man smoke herb, the more Babylon fall").

Medicinal use

Medically, cannabis is most often used as an appetite stimulant and pain reliever for certain terminal illnesses such as cancer and AIDS. It is used to relieve glaucoma and certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder. It has also been found to relieve nausea for chemotherapy patients. The medical use of cannabis is politically controversial, but it is sometimes recommended informally by physicians. A synthetic version of the major active chemical in cannabis, THC, is available in many countries in the form of a pill as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol). THC has also been found to reduce arterial blockages. A sublingual spray derived from an extract of cannabis has also been approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis in Canada as the prescription drug Sativex - this drug may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription.

United States

Eleven states in the United States passed laws allowing cannabis possession and consumption for medical purposes; however, the Supreme Court of the United States in Gonzales v. Raich ruled that the listing of cannabis as a Schedule I controlled substance was constitutional, and that possession for any reason other than approved medical research was therefore illegal under federal law. This remained consistent with their ruling in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative, an 8-0 decision stating that there is no exception as a Schedule I drug for people to use cannabis for medical purposes. This creates an interesting tension between state and federal laws. According to The Guardian, Cannabis is now the United States's number one cash crop.

New breeding and cultivation techniques

Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of cannabis strains since 1970, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances are known as the sinsemilla techniques of production; sinsemilla, Spanish for without seed, are the dried, seedless female flowers of cannabis plants which have been grown in the absence of males to ensure no pollination takes place. Because THC potency and production drops off once pollination takes place, various techniques such as seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, and the sea of green method have been utilized, in part as a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky; thus, efficient indoor cultivation has become more common. These same advances have led to fewer seeds being present in cannabis currently than were present 20 years ago.

The increases in potency—and ramifications thereof—have been exaggerated by many opponents of cannabis use both in and out of government. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that pot today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past. In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger cannabis (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance.

Many cannabis proponents disagree vehemently, reasoning that as one must smoke less cannabis to achieve the same effect, it actually is safer and less potentially carcinogenic in the long run than that which was smoked in earlier times.

Preparations for human consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:
  • Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
    • Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components.
  • Kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
  • Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing kif into blocks.
  • Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
  • Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
  • Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
  • Resin, when smoked through a pipe all of the above will cause black goo to create a film on the sides or collect in certain nooks depending on its shape. This can be collected and resmoked. This method is commonly referred to as scraping.
  • Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, brush, bush or leaf.

There are also three species of Cannabis. These include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, the last containing much less THC and generally not used as a psychoactive substance.

Smoking

There are several methods of smoking Cannabis. The most popular include the spliff or joint, the bong, the bubbler, and the pipe.

To create a joint, cannabis is rolled up into a cigarette, using a rolling paper. Cannabis cigars, or blunts, can also be created by using the wrapper of a standard cigar. Commercial 'blunt wraps' made out of processed tobacco leaves may also be used.

A bong is a water-pipe through which cannabis smoke is filtered. Variants include the gravity bong, which has a "bowl" containing marijuana placed atop a water bottle or similar container with the bottom removed. The container is submerged in a bucket of water almost up to its top, and then the bowl is screwed or stuck into place. Then the pot is lit and the water bottle is slowly raised, so that the lack of air pressure draws smoke into the bottle. Then the bowl is quickly removed and the smoke is inhaled through the top of the bottle while simultaneously pushing the bottle downward, forcing the smoke into the lungs at pressure; hence gravity bong. Bongs originated from hookahs, which were the original Indian hashish-smoking implements. Hookahs have their bowls on top, and usually have several hoses emanating from the sides, so that more than one person can smoke at a time. Today's glass bongs found in head shops almost universally consist of blown glass tubes with the bowls coming out of their sides.

Bubblers are hybrids between bongs and pipes. Made of blown glass, they resemble pipes with bulbous bottoms containing a small amount of water. The smoke is drawn through the water just as with bongs.

Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, stone, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Some pipes, usually those made of glass, have a carburetor, colloquially referred to as a carb or rush which is covered for suction then released for inhalation. Occasionally users may make pipes from soda cans, aluminum foil, small plumbing fittings, or crisp fruits or vegetables.

A "shotgun" is a specialized way of smoking joints involving two people. One person takes a hit then puts the joint or blunt ember first into his mouth. Another person then places his mouth over the front end, and first person exhales through the joint, blowing both his smoke and the joint’s smoke into the other person’s mouth. More efficient variations of shotgunning involve both members curling their hands to form a 'shotgun' chamber. Simultaneous exhaling by one member and inhaling by the other member will effectively transfer smoke between the two people. Many consider this to be a very intimate practice.

A "one-hitter" is a device that looks similar to a cigarette. Seedless, stemless cannabis buds are loaded into a compartment in a container known as a dugout. A hitter, contained in another compartment, is loaded and lit. This is repeated for each hit. This method is also efficient in titrating the exact dose desired.

There are certainly regional differences in smoking preferences. The above methods are preferred by American users. Most Europeans, however, prefer to smoke their hashish or marijuana either as a joint containing only cannabis or by lacing cigarettes. They roll these joints (which they often refer to as "spliffs") of mostly tobacco with only a small amount of marijuana/hashish, and put an improvised filter on the end which is called a crutch or a roach.

Oral consumption

Cannabis may be orally consumed by blending it with ethanol or lipids. With this method, some claim that more cannabis must be used, though considering that the effects of oral consumption are different from those of inhalation, others may claim that less is required. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral cannabis is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis. A common belief holds that while smoked cannabis has a large volume exhaled, or simply burned, without consumption, ingested cannabis has 100% consumption, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver. Titration is much more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, to create Cannabutter that is used in preparing Brownies, Fudge, Cookies or Ganja Goo Balls or Space Cakes. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India.

As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach makes them feel sick. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only a little water soluble with a solubility of only a few grams per litre, but enough to make a tea effective. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be inefficient.

The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable cannabis seeds illegal, although they can be openly bought and sold legally in much of Europe, including the UK.

Vaporization

With a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of cannabis consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins. Some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using cannabis in this way, and others claim to experience a far more intense effect from a smaller amount of cannabis. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter. Users can make them out of an empty lightbulb, a plastic bottle cap, and a straw.

Knifing

Hot-knifing, blasting or doing blades is a process in which the tips of two knives are heated to a very high temperature, often by inserting them into the heating elements of a stove. The cannabis is then pressed between the heated knife-tips, rapidly combusting it. The vaporized cannabis is often funneled into the mouth of the smoker through the use of a plastic bottle-top, empty pen, or other hollow tube or funnel. In New Zealand and Australia, this is also known as "spots". A modified method of "spotting", uses knife blades heated to a much lower temperature, hot enough to vaporise the active ingredients, leaving the organic material scorched, rather than burned, thus removing potential harmful consequenses of the smoke itself.

Immediate effects of consumption by humans

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Cannabis sativa species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity

Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol or cannabinol, which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different cannabis products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary.

THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population.

A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects..

List of effects

Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, and physiological effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the sativa species of Cannabis.

Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory, widely believed to be more common with the indica species.

Cognitive effects

Behavioral effects

Physiological effects

Lethal dose

It is generally considered to be impossible to achieve a lethal overdose by smoking cannabis. According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD50, the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man ingesting all of the THC in 21 one-gram cigarettes of high-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, assuming no THC was lost through burning or exhalation. For oral consumption, the LD50 for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration — an unheard-of method of use — may such a level be even theoretically possible.

There has only ever been one recorded verdict (although not ultimately upheld) of fatal overdose due to cannabis. In January 2004, Lee Maisey of Pembrokeshire, Wales was found dead. The coroner's report stated "Death due to probable cannabis toxicity". It had been reported that Maisey smoked about six joints a day. Mr. Maisey's blood contained 130 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml) of the THC metabolite THC-COOH. However, the validity of the finding did not stand up well under review. As reported on 2004-01-28 in the Neue Züricher Zeitung, the Federal Health Ministry of Switzerland asked Dr. Rudolf Brenneisen, a professor at the department for clinical research at the University of Bern, to review the data of this case. Dr. Brenneisen said that the data of the toxicological analysis and collected by autopsy were "scanty and not conclusive" and that the conclusion "death by cannabis intoxication" was "not legitimate." Additionally, Dr. Franjo Grotenhermen of the Nova-Institute in Cologne, Germany said: "A concentration of 130 ng/ml THC-COOH in blood is a moderate concentration, which may be observed some hours after the use of one or two joints. Heavy regular use of cannabis easily results in THC-COOH concentrations of above 500 ng/ml. Many people use much more cannabis than Mr. Maisey did, without any negative consequences."

Health issues and the effects of cannabis

There is little conclusive scientific evidence about the long-term effects of human cannabis consumption.The Dangers of Cannabis by Professor Ray Streater The findings of many earlier studies purporting to demonstrate the effects of the drug are unreliable and generally regarded as junk science, as the studies were flawed, with strong bias and poor methodology. The most significant confounding factor is the use of other drugs, including alcohol and tobacco, by test subjects in conjunction with cannabis. When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs or the interaction between them. In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, making it difficult to get new studies funded or approved. Since there are so many different compounds in cannabis, it is difficult to predict or accurately measure its effects.

Some conclusions established with some degree of certainty, however, are that cannabis is less likely to cause emphysema or cancer than tobacco; that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among certain genetically predisposed individuals has an elevated correlation with certain mental illness outcomes, ranging from momentary minor psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia ; that cannabis use is generally higher among schizophrenics, but causality has not been established; that it temporarily impairs motor skills; that it is unlikely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users, and in a study done by the University of California Los Angeles in 2006, that even heavy marijuana smokers do not increase their risk for lung cancer.

Legality

Since the 20th Century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of marijuana, since buying or growing marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Recent history

Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis. Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever.

The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, who deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. (see 1937 Marijuana Tax Act)

Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

Decriminalization and legalization

In recent decades, a movement to decriminalize cannabis has arisen in several countries. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis, a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow it, and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana. In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect in 2004 however this still means a jail sentence of up to 2 years for possession and 14 years for supplying. The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006. However, as of May 3, 2006, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006, sparking broad controversy over the bill.

References

Notes

Bibliography

  • Brice Mirken and Mitch Earleywine:
  • "Knife" Sotelo:
  • Cannabis: A History (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN: 0312322208

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