Manchukuo

National flagImperial Emblem

State of Manchuria
Chinese name
Chinese	满洲国/滿洲國
Hanyu Pinyin	Mǎnzhōuguó
Wade-Giles	Man-chou-kuo
Japanese Name
Kanji	満州国
Hepburn Romaji	Manshūkoku

Manchukuo (1932 to 1945) ( Kanji (Shinjitai): 満州国), literally meaning "Manchuria nation", is a former state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia under the leadership of the Emperor Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty.

Historians are divided in their opinions about Manchukuo: those that regard Manchukuo merely as a puppet state of Japan, and those that see Manchukuo as an effort at building an ideal state that failed due to the pressures of war. The first approach is more common in the masses though some scholars argue otherwise.[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v030/30.2doak.html

History

Inner Manchuria came under strong Russian influence in the 1890s with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok. Japanese influence replaced Russian in Inner Manchuria as a result of the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905), and Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway in 1906 to Port Arthur (Japanese: Ryojun).

Between World War I and World War II Manchuria became a political and military battleground. Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Japan had taken advantage of the disorder following the Russian Revolution to occupy Outer Manchuria but Soviet successes and American economic pressure forced Japanese withdrawal.

During the period of the warlords in China, Chang Tso-Lin established himself in Inner Manchuria but the Japanese Kantogun found him too independent and assassinated him in 1928. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Japan declared the area independent from China on February 18, 1932 as the "Great Manchu State" (Manchukuo, Pinyin: Manzhouguo) ^*. The city of Changchun, renamed Xinjing (新京) or "New capital", became the capital of the new entity.

The Japanese installed Puyi, the last Chinese Emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, as chief executive in 1932, and in 1934 he became emperor of Manchukuo with the era name of "Kang De" or "Tranquility and Virtue". Manchukuo thus became the "Great Manchu Empire". Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him.

In this manner Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China in the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on adherence to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. Confucius' teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. The regime used numerous festivals, sport events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens ^*. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese language taught in Manchukuo schools, and Shinto became the national religion.

Out of 80 then existing nations, only 23 recognized the new state. The League of Nations (via the Lytton Report) declared that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign from the League of Nations in 1934. Of the major powers Imperial Japan, Soviet Union, Vichy France, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Germany recognized Manchukuo diplomatically. In addition Manchukuo gained recognition from the Japanese collaborationist government of China under Wang Jingwei, as well as El Salvador, Denmark, Costa Rica and the Holy See. Although the Chinese government did not recognize Manchukuo, the two countries established official ties for trade, communications and transportation.

Prior to World War II, the Japanese colonized Manchukuo and used it as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939 a border dispute between Manchukuo and Mongolia resulted in the Battle of Halhin Gol, when a combined Soviet/Mongolian force defeated the Japanese Kantogun.

In spite of the country's name, the Manchus actually constituted a minority in Manchukuo, which had Chinese as its largest ethnic group, along with large numbers of Koreans, Japanese, Mongols and smaller minorities.

The Emperor had limited power and all of the Manchu ministers served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who actually made all decisions. Emperor Kang De lived in constant fear of his life, with some justification. The Japanese told him how to dress, how to worship and even tried to control whom he married.

On August 8, 1945 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from outer Manchuria. This was called Operation August Storm. During the Soviet offensive the Army of Manchukuo, theoretically a two hundred thousand man force, well armed and trained along Japanese lines, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single bullet; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against Japanese forces. Emperor Kang De had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the communist government in China, where the authorities imprisoned him as a war criminal along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.

From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria (Inner Manchuria) served as a base area for the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang. With Soviet encouragement, the Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantogun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces.

Politics

See also:

Administrative divisions

In 1934, Manchukuo was organized into 14 provinces (省) and 2 special municipalities (特別市).

Province name	Chinese (T)	Pinyin	Wade-Giles	Capital		Andong	安東/安东	Āndōng	An-tung	Andong (Now Dandong)		Fengtian	奉天	Fèngtiān	Feng-t`ien	Fengtian (Now Shenyang)		Jinzhou	錦州/锦州	Jǐnzhōu	Chin-chou	Jinzhou		Jilin	吉林	Jílín	Chi-lin	Jilin City		Rehe	熱河/热河	Rèhé	Je-ho	Chengde		Jiandao	間島/间岛	Jiāndǎo	Chien-tao	Yanji		Heihe	黑河	Hēihé	Hei-ho	Heihe		Sanjiang	三江	Sānjiāng	San-chiang	Jiamusi		Longjiang	龍江/龙江	Lóngjiāng	Lung-chiang	Qiqihar		Binjiang	濱江/滨江	Bīnjiāng	Pin-chiang	Harbin		Xing'anbei	興安北/兴安北	Xīng'ānběi	Hsing-an-pei	Hailar		Xing'andong	興安東/兴安东	Xīng'āndōng	Hsing-an-tung	Zhalantun		Xing'annan	興安南/兴安南	Xīng'ānnán	Hsing-an-nan	Wangyemiao (Now Ulaanhot)		Xing'anxi	興安西/兴安西	Xīng'ānxī	Hsing-an-hsi	Dabanshang (Now Bairin Right Banner)

Municipality Name	Chinese	Pinyin	Wades-Giles		Xinjing	新京	Xīnjīng	Hsin-ching		Harbin	哈爾濱/哈尔滨	Hā'ěrbīn	Ha-erh-pin

In 1939, Manchukuo was reorganized into 19 provinces and one special municipality. The Harbin municipality was abolished and four new provinces were added.

Province name	Chinese	Pinyin	Wade-Giles	Capital		Mudanjiang	牡丹江	Mǔdānjiāng	Mu-tan-chiang	Mudanjiang		Tonghua	通化	Tōnghuà	T`ung-hua	Tonghua		Dong'an	東安/东安	Dōng'ān	Tung-an	Dongan (now Mishan)		Bei'an	北安	Běi'ān	Pei-an	Bei'an		Siping	四平	Sìpíng	Ssu-p`ing	Siping

The cities of Dalian and Lüshun as well as their immediate environs were part of the Kwantung Leased Territory.

Demographics

In 1908 the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000.

In early 1934 the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 30,190,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, and 98,431 other nationalities (Russians, Mongols, etc). The Chinese numbers included 680,000 Koreans. Around 80% of the population was rural. Other statistics indicate that in Manchukuo the population rose by 18,000,000.

From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Heilongjiang, Jehol, Kirin, Liaoning (Fengtien) and Hsingan provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period evaluated the total population as 36,933,000 residents.

In their colonization efforts, the Japanese intended to ask Nazi Germany for the Jews it obviously did not want, in a kind of forced Zionism (compare with the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast). However the German government preferred the Final Solution and only a few Jews made it to Manchukuo.

Population of main cities

Yingkow (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940)
Mukden (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940)
Hsinking or Changchung (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940)
Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940)
Dairen (400,000 or 555,562 in 1939)
Antung (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940)
Kirin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940)
Tsitsihar (75,000 in 1940)

The Japanese population

In 1931-32 there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 inhabitants of Japanese nationality. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Hsinking they made up 25% of the population. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea, this migration stopped.

When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946-47.

Economy

Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. Its industrial system was among the most advanced indutrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production surpassed Japan's in late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernized during Manchukuo era.

See also:

Transport

Manchukuo built an efficient and massive railway system that still functions well today.

Military

See also:

Education

Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. They set up or founded many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. There were 1,600 private schools (with Japanese permits), 150 missionary schools and in Harbin 25 Russian schools.

Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rurual areas, student were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production.

Stamps and postal history of Manchukuo

Manchukuo issued its first postage stamps on July 28, 1932. A number of denominations existed, with two designs: the pagoda at Liaoyang and a portrait of Puyi. Originally the inscription read (in Chinese) "Manchu State Postal Administration"; in 1934, a new issue read "Manchu Empire Postal Administration". An orchid crest design appeared in 1935, and a design featuring the Sacred White Mountains in 1936.

1936 also saw a new regular series featuring various scenes and surmounted by the orchid crest. Between 1937 and 1945, the government issued a variety of commemoratives: for anniversaries of its own existence, to note the passing of new laws, and to honor Japan in various ways, for instance, on the 2600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire in 1940. The last issue of Manchukuo came on May 2, 1945, commemorating the 10th anniversary of an edict.

After the dissolution of the government, successor postal authorities locally handstamped many of the remaining stamp stocks with "Republic of China" in Chinese and so forth. In addition, the Port Arthur and Dairen Postal Administration overprinted many Manchukuo stamps between 1946 and 1949.

See also:

List of birds on stamps of Manchukuo

**Manchukuo** 1932 - 1945
Personal Names	Period of Reigns	era names (年號) and their corresponding range of years
All given names in bold.
Aixinjuelo Puyi 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2	March 1932 - August 1945	Datong (大同 da4 tong2) 1932 Kangde (康德 kang1 de2) 1934

References

External links

Manchukuo Imperial Army
Provisional Government of the Republic of Manchu
Manchukuo Economy (additional dates)
- http://krd.roshy.human.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~yasutomi/private2/home/home.html
- http://krd.roshy.human.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~yasutomi/private2/home/node14.html
Manchu Money Museum

Manchukuo | 1932 establishments | 1945 disestablishments | World War II client states

Gourt Home::Gourt :: Manchukuo

History

See also

Politics

Administrative divisions

Demographics

Population of main cities

The Japanese population

Economy

Transport

Military

Education

Stamps and postal history of Manchukuo

See also

References

External links