A belief in magic as a means of influencing the world seems to have been common in all cultures. Some of these beliefs crossed over into nascent religions, influencing rites and religious celebrations. Over time, religiously-based supernatural events ("miracles") acquired their own flavor, separating themselves from standard magic. Some modern religions embrace connections to magic (notably Neopaganism), while others retain only echoes.

Unlike other ("nature-based") magic, religiously based magic almost always involves requesting the intervention of a deity or deities to enact the desired effect. It is up to the good pleasure of the contacted deity whether to grant the request or not; the supplicant is, individually, powerless (though some might claim a personal divine gift, such as speaking in tongues).

Magical practices in prehistory

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Appearing from aboriginal tribes in Australia and New Zealand to rainforest tribes in South America, bush tribes in Africa and pagan tribal groups in Western Europe and Britain (as personified by Merlin), some form of shamanism and belief in a spirit world seems to be common in the early development of human communities. According to Joseph Campbell, the ancient cave paintings in Lascaux may have been associated with "the magic of the hunt." Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.

Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into kings and bureaucrats, so too did shamans and adepts evolve into priests and a priestly caste.

This shift is not in nomenclature alone. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, Persians, Aztecs and Maya civilizations.

Psychological perspective

Some anthropologists have asserted that "magical thinking" is a form of proto-science or pseudoscience rather than a form of religious practice, most notable among them being Sir James George Frazer and Bronisław Malinowski. By this line of thought, early magical beliefs developed through a post-hoc fallacy — a supplication was made on the altar, and then it rained shortly afterward. Regardless of if the supplication worked or not, it was credited with the change, and thus magical beliefs could grow.

Religious practices and Magic

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Closely related to magic are most forms of religious supplication, asking the divine for aid. Perhaps the most famous form is prayer, which is often considered a spirtual duty in communing with the divine, even aside from any miraculous effects on the outside world.

Both magic and religion contain rituals. Typically, there is a recognition that rituals do not always work; rather, it is thought to simply increase the likelihood of the desired result coming to pass. (Some practitioners of "natural" magic believe that their spells always work.) While many rituals focus on personal communion with the divine and spiritual purification, others often seek "magical" results, such as healing or good luck in battle.

The name of God

There is a long-standing belief in the power of "true names;" this often descends from the magical belief that knowing a being's true name grants you power over it. This is often seen as a requirement in spiritualism; knowing the identity of a spirit greatly aids in soliciting information from it.

If names have power, then knowing the name of God grants the greatest power of all. This belief is reflected in ancient Judaism, which used the Tetragrammaton (YHWH, usually translated as "LORD" in small caps) to refer to God "safely" in the Tanakh. Saying the name of God ("taking the Lord's name in vain," one of the Ten Commandments) without good reason could result in stoning. The same belief is seen in Hinduism, but with different conclusions; rather, attaining transcendence and the power of God is seen as a good thing. Thus, some Hindus chant the name of their favorite deities as often as possible, the most common being Krishna.

Religious artifacts

Some religions believe in transferring holiness to objects and places; this is often seen in even simple things like "christening" ceremonies for a new boat. Churches and certain religiously-minded individuals often consecrate the ground where a building will be constructed.

The practice was exceedingly common during the Middle Ages, where a large market for spiritual trinkets existed. Shards of the true cross and fingerbones of saints were often brought back by Crusaders from the Holy Land, where they were sold to the peasantry as cure-alls. Most scholarly sources agree that the vast majority of these sales were frauds and simply a form of supplemental income for the Crusaders, though .

This practice somewhat fell into disrepute during the Reformation; it became associated with idol worship. As a result, this is less seen in Protestantism than Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy.

Sacrifice

One of the more controversial practices in magic and religion both, this involves a sacrifice to a supernatural being, such as a god, angel, or demon, who is asked to intervene on behalf of the person performing the sacrifice.

Sacrifice can take many forms. The most common forms of supplication and sacrifice in pagan and neopagan religious practice involves the burning of oils or incense. Other common forms of supplication may include the offering of personal objects to a deity, offering chants, and the offering of drinks and food. Less used is blood sacrifice. In early history, blood sacrifice was common; a goat or calf would be sacrificed. Often times, divination would be practiced via the reading of entrail reading as well (notably in Ancient Rome). Leviticus contains detailed rules for proper sacrificing in early Judaism. Most neopagans reject the use of blood sacrifices. In hoodoo, however, blood rituals, or the giving of one's own blood in ritual practices, is not entirely uncommon. In Christianity, it is believed that Jesus's final sacrifice renders the need for new sacrifices moot. Most strands of Judaism believe that with the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, there is no place to sacrifice to any more, and thus the need is negated (modern Samaritans disagree, and maintain the practice). Islam has always firmly rejected the concept of sacrifices, though some syncretic blends of Islam and native practices in places such as Indonesia feature sacrifice as an element of worship.

The most extreme form of sacrifice, and the one carrying the most negative taboo, is human sacrifice. The moloch is one famous but disputed example of the practice; the Carthaginians seemingly sacrificed young children when circumstances looked grim, hoping to regain their gods' favor. Some historians attribute this as one reason as to their downfall. Other cultures preferred to sacrifice only their enemies, offering up captured prisoners in supplication; the Druids became one of the two religions banned by the Roman Empire due to their practice of (Roman) human sacrifice. Genesis (of the Hebrew Bible) contains the famous story of the "Binding of Isaac"; Abraham is ordered to sacrifice his son Isaac by God, but it turns out that God was only performing a mysterious test, and a ram is sent instead. Human sacrifice is condemned afterward. The Qur'an contains strong condemnations of the Arabian pagans who would sacrifice babies who turned out to be unwanted girls by leaving them in pots in the desert to die of exposure, saying that such practice surely leads to Hell.

Magic and Abrahamic religion

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Magic and Abrahamic religions have had a somewhat checkered past. The King James Version of the Bible included the famous translation "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" (Exodus 22:18) , and Saul is rebuked by God for seeking advice from a diviner who could contact spirits. However, miracles from God are considered legitimate, such as Moses' staff turning into a snake. However, the Tanakh contains many condemnations of non-Jews and their practices. It is unclear how much it is simple heresy being condemned, and how much magic; magic was seen as intricately tied up with Baal-worship and other unacceptable forms of religion at the time. In the New Testament and later theology, it is thought that all seeming "magic" is actually powered by demons, making it even more unacceptable. Thus, magic was seen as taboo throughout much of the Middle Ages unless draped in Christianity; see Beowulf for an example of a story of likely pagan origin that was infused with religion to make it "acceptable." Occasional persecutions were made on the basis of witchcraft, or at least using witchcraft as the excuse to execute enemies with. A famous example is the Salem Witch Trials.

The Qur'an contains references to both good and bad jinn, claiming that some submitted to God while others persist in disobedience. Soliciting the aid of a Muslim jinn might grant magic-like effects and be acceptable to God, such as that done by King Sulayman (Solomon). Evil jinn are the rough equivalent of demons to other religions.

Modernistic Abrahamic theology claims that the age of miracles has passed, and "magic" is now ineffective (whether or not it actually worked in the past). Therefore, the point is moot and there is no need to hunt down witches, because there aren't any true ones. More literalistic brands of Christianity still maintain a belief in demons and evil spirits, but normally believe that in accordance with Christ's commands, devil-worshippers should be "saved," not slain. Judaism, after long years of persecution after the diaspora, mostly lost its taste for killing magicians. The Jewish people have depended on tolerance of their host societies, and suggesting that undesireable people be driven away could upset the balance and end in their own persecution.

References

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See also

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• Kabbalah, a variety of mystic Judaism
• Christian mysticism
  • Zionism (southern African religion), a syncretic blend of African beliefs and Christianity
• Sufism, a variant of Islam
• Wicca, a modern reinterpretation of paganism
• Anthropology of religion
• Sympathetic magic

Magie et Religion magia

Magic | Religious behaviour and experience