Libya was initially organized into two to four provinces, then into several governorates (muhafazat) and more recently into municipalities (baladiyat). The country's 25 baladiyah have recently been re-divided into 32 shabiyah.

Foreign relations

Libya's foreign policies have undergone much fluctuation and change since the state came into being on Christmas Eve, 1951. As the Kingdom of Libya, the country maintained a definitively pro-Western stance yet at the same time was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953. The Kingdom was in close alliance with Britain as well as with the United States both of which maintained military base rights in Libya. Libya also forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and Turkey, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955.

Although the nation supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, Libya took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and the early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while King Idris' government steered an essentially conservative course at home.

After the 1969 coup, Qadhafi closed American and British bases on Libyan territory and partially nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West, especially the United States, to end support for Israel. Qadhafi rejected both Soviet communism and Western capitalism and claimed he was charting a middle course for his government. In October 1978, Gadaffi was severely criticised for his support of Idi Amin in the Uganda-Tanzania War. Libyan troops sent by Gadaffi aided Idi Amin in trying to annex the northern Tanzanian province of Kagera. Amin, having lost the battle, fled to exile in Libya where he remained for almost a year.

The 1980s was a decade in which Libya increasingly distanced itself from the West and was accused of committing mass acts of state sponsored terrorism. When evidence of Libyan complicity was discovered in the Berlin discotheque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States responded by launching an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986.

In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the U.S. and Scotland for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993.

The year 2003, more than a decade since sanctions were put in place, saw Libya turning a new leaf in its relations with the west. The Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am flight 103 as well as UTA Flight 772.Marcus, Jonathan (May 15 2006), "Washington's Libyan fairy tale" BBC News Accessed July 15 2006 The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step for Libya toward rejoining the international community.(March 25 2004), "Blair hails new Libyan relations" BBC news accessed July 15 2006 Since 2003 the country has normalised its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides.Michael Hirsh, (May 11 2006), "The Real Libya Model", Newsweek Accessed July 15 2006

Geography

Libya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres (679,182 sq. mi), making it the 17th largest nation in the world. It is bound to the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad and Sudan and to the east by Egypt. Also, the country is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. At 1770 kilometres (1100 mi), Libya has the longest coastline of any country bordering the Mediterranean. Education Libya, 2005 Demographics Accessed June 29 2006 The climate is mostly dry and desert-like in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate.

The traditional geographic regions are Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. The chief cities are the capital Tripoli in northwest Libya and Benghazi, located in the east. Other significant cities include Misratah, Sirte and Sabha.2004 Census of Libya, The national authority for information and authentication Accessed July 17 2006

Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the gibli). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also dust storms and sandstorms. Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra as well as others.

The desert

Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan desert can be extreme; in 1922, the town of Al 'Aziziyah, which is located west of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 57.8°C (136.0°F), generally accepted as the highest recorded naturally occurring air temperature reached on Earth.El Azizia Libya, "How Hot is Hot?", Extreme Science Accessed July 14 2006

There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebiana and Kufra. Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan Borders.

Its south-eastern part is well defined on all sides, with sheer cliffs and deep, narrows wadis. The northeast part, separated from the other half by a broad valley called the "Gap" is more broken, and supports three large wadis with vegetation.Allan Watson, "The Gilf Kebir, Part I", (August 19 2005) Tour Egypt Accessed July 17 2006

Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat and Kissu. These granite mountains are very ancient, having formed much before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Air Mountains. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west. The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features.

In 1996 the movie "The English Patient" raised public interest in the Libyan desert.

Economy

The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contribute practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of GDP. These oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa and has allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive and impressive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education.United Nations Economic & Social Council (February 16 1996), Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Report Accessed July 14 2006 Compared to its market-orientated neighbours, Libya enjoys an extremely low level of both absolute and relative poverty. Libyan officials in the past three years have made progress on economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the international fold.CIA World Factbook 2006, Libya-Economy Accessed July 14 2006 This effort picked up steam after UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003 and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction.W.M.D., 2003 Libya Special Weapons News, Global Security Report Accessed July 14 2006

Libya has started to respond to international, political and economic pressure to adopt market orientated reforms and has begun liberalizing the highly effective socialist-oriented economy. Initial steps — including applying for WTO membership, reducing some subsidies, and announcing plans for privatization — are laying the groundwork for a transition to a more market-based economy.(July 28 2004) "Libya to start WTO membership talks", Reuters Accessed July 16 2006 The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food.CIA World Factbook, Economy of Libya 2002 Accessed July 16 2006

The Libyan economy is also viewed as ripe for modernisation and foreign investment.U.K. Trade and Investment, Libyan Trade Links with the UK Accessed July 14 2006 Under the previous Prime Minister, Shukri Ghanem and current prime minister Baghdadi Mahmudi, it is undergoing a business boom. Many socialist-era government-run industries are being privatized. UN sanctions were ended in 2003, and most US sanctions have also been lifted; as of May 2006, the remaining vestiges are scheduled for removal pending US Congressional approval. Continental Airlines currently offers code-share travel to Libya. Many international oil companies have returned to the country, including the recent return of controversial oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil."Shell returns to Libya with gas exploration pact", Volume: 23, No. 27, Oil & Gas Worldwide News 2006 Accessed July 14 2006 Tourism is also on the rise which has brought demand for the building of more hotels and increasing capacity in airports such as Tripoli International.Libya Report Part II 2005, New York Times Accessed July 14 2006

Demographics

Libya has a small population within its large territory, with a population density of about 3 persons per square kilometre (8.5/mi²) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, and less than one person per square kilometre (1.6/mi²) elsewhere. This makes Libya one of the least populous nations by area in the world.Knowledge & Fun, List of countries and their population densities Accessed July 14 2006 90% of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. More than half the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi.Mailud Al- Amari, "Population Dynamics and Fertility Trends in Libya" (November 2004) Accessed July 17 2006 Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs and Berbers.

Within Libya, there are also small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups concentrated in the south, living nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians and Tunisians), West Africans and Sub-Saharan Africans."Libya" - Population, The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online 2005 Accessed July 17 2006 Libyan Berbers and Arabs constitute 97% of the population, the other 3% are Black Africans, Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians and Tunisians.

The main language spoken in Libya is Arabic, which is also the official language. Tamazight (Berber languages), which do not have official status, are spoken by Libyan Berbers.Lisa Anderson, "Libya", III. People, B. Religion & Language, MSN Encarta 2006 Accessed July 17 2006 Italian and English are sometimes spoken in the big cities, although Italian speakers are mainly among the older generation. In addition, Tuaregs have their own language which belongs to the Berber languages group.

Culture

Libyan culture is, to a certain extent, similar to that of its other neighbouring Arab states. The Libyan people very much consider themselves as part of a wider Arab community. The primary language is a colloquial form of Arabic that is unique to the area around Libya."Arabic Libyan", Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition (2005). Accessed July 17 2006 There seem to be two distinct dialects and a couple of village and tribal dialects. Libyan Arabs have a heritage in the traditions of the nomadic Bedouin and associate themselves with a particular Bedouin tribe.

Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of whom live in apartment blocks and various kinds of independent housing units depending on their income status. Most of the Arabs, who have lived nomadic lifestyles, traditionally in tents, have been settled in various towns and cities in Libya. Because of this, their old ways of life are fading out. It is believed that there are still some who do live as they have for centuries in the desert, though no one knows the exact numbers. Most of the population are engaged in occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in agriculture.

Similar to some other countries in the Arab world, Libya boasts a few theatres or art galleries. Public entertainment is almost non-existent, even in the big cities. Instead, most Libyans enjoy regular trips to the many beaches of the country. They also visit Libya's many beautifully preserved archaeological sites, especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world.

The nation's capital Tripoli boasts many good museums and archives including the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Jamahirirya Museum, built in consultation with UNESCO, is possibly the country's most famous and houses one of the finest collections of classical art in the Mediterranean.

There has recently been something of a revival of the arts in Libya, especially in the field of painting and private galleries are springing up to provide a showcase for new talent."Libya Today", Discover Libya Accessed July 14 2006 Conversely, for many years there have been no public theatres and only a few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad. The main output of Libyan television is devoted to showing various styles of traditional Libyan music. Traditional Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south.

Religion

By far the predominant religion in Libya is Islam with 97% of the population associating with the Muslim faith.Religious adherents by location, "42,000 religious geography and religion statistics", Libya Accessed July 15 2006 Nearly all Libyan Muslims adhere to the Sunni sect of Islam, which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy.

Before the 1930s, the Sanusi Movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaayaa (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Sanusi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Sanusi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. This Islamic movement, which was later destroyed by both Italian invasion and later the Qadhafi government, was very conservative and somewhat different to the Islam that exists in Libya today. Qadhafi himself is a devout Muslim, and his government is taking somewhat of a leading role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. Libyan Islam, however, has always been considered as traditional but in no way harsh. A Libyan form of Sufism is also somewhat common in parts of the country.

Although Libyans are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslims, there are also very small Christian communities, composed exclusively of foreigners. There is a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli, which is part of the Egyptian Diocese. There are also an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community).

Libya was once the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC.The World Jewish Congress, "History of the Jewish Community in Libya" Accessed July 16 2006 A series of pogroms started in November of 1945 lasting for almost three years, drastically reducing Libya's Jewish population.Harris, David A. (2001), In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979-1999, pp. 149-150 In 1948, about 38,000 Jews lived in the country.

Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated from Libya. Another series of pogroms began after the Suez Crisis in 1956, forcing all but about 100 Jews to flee. When Muammar al-Qaddafi came to power, all remaining Jewish property was confiscated and all debts to Jews were cancelled. Although the main synagogue in Tripoli was renovated in 1999, it has yet to re-open for services.

See also