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Jainism (pronounced in English as //), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म), is a religion and philosophy originating in the prehistory of South Asia. Now a minority in modern India with growing communities in the United States, Western Europe, Africa, the Far East and elsewhere, Jains have continued to sustain the ancient Shraman (श्रमण) or ascetic tradition.

Jainism has significantly influenced the religious, ethical, political and economic spheres in India for well over two millennia. Jainism stresses the spiritual independence and equality of all life with a particular emphasis on non-violence. Self-control (व्रत, vrata) is the means by which Jains attain moksha, Keval Gnan, or realization of the soul's true nature.

A lay Jain is termed a shravak (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ), or order, has four components: monks (साधु), nuns (sadhvi), lay men (श्रावक) and lay women (shravika).

Overview of Jain Dharma

Jain philosophy is based upon eternal, universal truths. Over a period of time, these truths may lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached enlightenment or total knowledge (Keval Gnan). Traditionally, in our universe and in our time, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ or रिषभ) is regarded as the first to realize the truth, ultimately followed by Lord Parshva (877-777 BCE) and Lord Vardhaman Mahavira (महावीर) (599-527 BCE).

Jainism teaches that every human is responsible for his/her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. It insists that we live, think and act respectfully and honor the spiritual nature of all life. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chiefly described as Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness (Anant Gyän, Anant Darshan, Anant Chäritra, and Anant Sukh). Jainism does not include a belief in an omnipotent supreme being or creator, but rather in an eternal universe governed by natural laws, and the interplay of its attributes (gunas) of matter (dravys).

Jain scriptures were written over a long period and the most cited is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by Umasvati (or Umasvami),the monk-scholar, more than 18 centuries ago. The primary figures in Jainism are Tirthankars. Jainism has two main divisions: Digambar and Shvetambar and both believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sansar, and jiva.

Compassion for all life, human and non human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment and to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have committed, is unimaginably abhorrent. It is the only religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions have been strongly influenced by Jains and often, the majority of the local non Jain population has also become vegetarian. History suggests that various strains of Hinduism became vegetarian due to strong Jain influences. In many towns, Jains run animal shelters, e.g. Delhi has a bird hospital run by a Jain temple.

Jainism's stance on nonviolence goes beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many are vegan due to the violence of modern dairy farms.The orthodox Jain diet excludes most root vegetables, as they believe this destroys life unnecessarily. Another reason for refusing root vegetables is to avoid destroying entire plants. If you eat apples, you do not destroy whole trees, but for root vegetables, whole plants are uprooted. Garlic and onions are avoided as these are seen as creating passion, meaning anger, hatred, jealousy. Observant Jains do not eat, drink, or travel after sunset (which is called Chauvihar) and always rise before sunrise.

Anekantavada, a foundation of Jain philosophy literally meaning "Nonsingular Conclusivity", or equivalently, "Non-one-endedness". Anekantavad consists of tools for overcoming inherent biases in any one perspective on a topic, object, process, state, or on reality in general. Another tool is The Doctrine of Postulation, Syādvāda. Anekantavad is defined as a multiplicity of views for it stresses looking at things from another's perspective.

Jains are remarkably welcoming and friendly toward other faiths. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. The Jain Heggade family has run the Hindu institutions of Dharmasthala, including the Sri Manjunath Temple, for eight centuries. Jains willingly donate money to churches and mosques and usually help with interfaith functions. Jain monks, like Acharya Tulsi and Acharya Sushil Kumar, actively promoted harmony among rival faiths to defuse tension.

Jains have been a palpable presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences, and to Mohandas Gandhi's politics, which led to the mainly non-violent movement for Indian independence.

Universal History and Jain Cosmology

Unlike creationist Hinduism, the Jain religion states that the universe has no beginning, nor end. Time is divided into Utsurpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avsarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). One Utsurpini and one Avsarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalchakra). Every Utsurpini and Avsarpini is divided into six unequal time periods known as Aras. During the Utsurpini half cycle, ethics, progress, happiness, strength, age, body, religion, etc., go from the worst conditions to the best. During the Avsaprini half-cycle, these notions go from the best conditions to the worst. Jains believe we currently are in the fifth Ara of the Avsarpini phase, with approximately 19 000 years until the next Ara. After this Avsarpini phase, the Utsurpini phase will begin, continuing the infinite repitition of the Kalchakra.

These notions of time and the universe conflict with various sciences, such as the aforementioned archaeologies. Also, for example, Darwin's theory of evolution does not exist in Jainism. The concept of infinite time with no beginning or end demands the notion that all actions, thoughts, events, relations and situations for and between all souls have occurred an infinite number of times.

When this cycle reaches its lowest level (in the current half-cycle: the sixth Ara), Jainism, as well as all religions will be lost in its entirety. During this time, all humans will be sinners; with short life spans, ugly appearances, and no sense of ethics. Due to this, all individuals during this time will gain a birth in Hell. The world will be a rotting wasteland with little food or water. Then, on the next upswing (start of the Utsurpini half-cycle), the Jain religion will be revived and reintroduced by new leaders, Tirthankars (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing.

In our era, the twenty-third Tirthankar was an ascetic teacher Parshva, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the liberation of the last Tirthankar, Lord Mahavir, in 527 BC. Jains regard all Tirthankars as reformers who called for a return to beliefs and practices in accord with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is based. The title Bhagavan ("Lord"), applied to Mahavir and all other Tirthankars, means Venerable.

The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this Avsarpini is called, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). A wandering ascetic teacher, he recalled Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith.

Jains believe that reality consists of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of infinite identical spiritual units (life); while ajiva (non-jiva) is matter in any form or condition: time, space, and movement.

Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they are never born or created for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, etc.

Any contact between jiva and ajiva causes the former to suffer and Jains understand that worldly existence inevitably means some suffering. Neither social nor individual reform can totally stop suffering. Every human has jiva which suffers because of its contact with ajiva. To avoid suffering, jiva must leave the four gatis (stages) of Human Life, Heavenly Bodies, Plants/Animals/Insects/Fish Life, and Hell, never forgetting the ultimate aim of liberation.

Karma and transmigration keep jiva locked in ajiva. Liberation from the human condition is difficult. Jiva continues to suffer during its infinite reincarnations. Jains believe that every action, good or evil, opens up sense channels (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which invisible karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of its next reincarnation.

The consequence of evil actions (Pap) is the gaining of negative karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to continue in the cycle of birth and death at a lower existential level. Good deeds (Punya), on the other hand, lead to positive karma, allowing jiva to rise to a higher level in its next life, where there is less suffering. However, good deeds alone can never lead to liberation.

The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma means cause-and-effect and hence every action has inescapable consequences. All Karmas, good or bad, must be shed to attain moksha, since all Karma, good or bad, must bear fruit and keeps jiva chained in an endless series of lifetimes which leads to suffering of a greater or lesser extent. Thus liberation warrants prevention and eradication of new karma that has entered and bonded with the soul.

At the end of his life, a liberated soul (in the Jain belief, a Siddha), with no karma to weigh it, jiva will rise free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the highest state in the universe,Siddhashila, where jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, aloneness, liberation and eternal happiness. The way to discard karma is to withdraw from worldly involvement as much as possible, and close the senses and the mind to prevent karma. Such eternal liberation by freeing Jiva from Pudgala (ajiva), so no new reincarnation occurs, is Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) causes attachment, while true knowledge (keval jñān)leads to liberation. All Jain sects share the belief that moksha is only possible to humans in the fourth Ara of each Utsurpini and Avsarpini.

S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology thus:

"In Jain tradition, the first teacher, Rishabh, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had appeared, a teacher/Tirthankara was needed to help people cope with life. In the fourth period, evil proliferated so much that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve moksha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live less than 125 years and the sixth epoch will be worse. 'A man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to that of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the upward cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wish fullfilling trees, his height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate, with Avasarpini followed by Usarpini in a neverending cycle." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)

It must be stated that among the numerous differences between Jain sects, those of the Digambara sect do not believe that women are capable of achieving moksha. The Svetambara sect, however, does accept this notion.

Karmic Theory

The Jain religion places great emphasis on the theory of Karma. Essentially, it is the belief that all jivas reap what they sow. Comfortable or uncomfortable situations that we exist in are the result of actions in previous births. These results does not necessary occur in the same life, and what we sow is not limited to physical actions. All activites—physical, verbal, and mental—play a role in future situations. The theory of Karma has long been an essential component of the Jain religion, as well as other Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism.

Jainism does not accept the belief that a divine being is responsible for creating pleasant or unpleasant situations. While others may be able to influence one's actions, thus producing Karma, they, as well as one, are bonded to their own Karmas.

The theory of Karma, however, is much more complicated than simply 'what goes around comes around'. Though this is not false, it is an over-simplification: there are many in-depth and comprehensive notions that are also important in the Jain philosphy.

A concept in Jain cosmology and science is the classification and manifestation of Karma. Karmas are constituted of infinitely small "Karman particles". These particles are made up of non-living particles (Pudgals) and are scattered and free-floating across the universe. When the soul acts with a passion such as attachment, anger, deceit, greed, etc., it attracts the Karman particles to itself. The particles attach onto the soul, at which point they are known as Karma. At that point, it will only be dettached when the fruit of the Karma is reaped, or when it is shed through asceticism.

Depending on the nature of the results they give when they mature, Karmas are divided into two main categories, of which are divided into eight further categories. The two main categories are Ghäti and Aghäti karmas. Ghäti means destructive or obscuring. The karmas that obscure the true knowledge of the Soul are called Ghäti karmas. Karmas that do not obscure the true knowledge of the soul are known as Aghäti karmas.

Ghäti karmas are divided into four different types of Karma:

  1. Knowledge obscuring (Jnänävaraniya) karma: Obscures the full potential of the knowledge of the soul. Those who have less of these Karmas are more intelligent and learn more easily.
  2. Perception obscuring (Darshanävarinya) karma: Diminishes the powers of correct perception through the five senses.
  3. Obstructing (Antaräya) karma: Caused by obstructing others in charity, gain, enjoyment of consumable/non-consumable items, etc.
  4. Deluding (Mohaniya) karma: Creates doubt about religion, spiritual teachers and the Jina. It causes attachment and pasions such as anger, ego, love, deceit and greed. Of all Karmas, deluding karma is the most difficult to overcome. Once this karma can be eradicated, liberation is assured.

Aghäti karmas are divided into four different types of Karma:

  1. Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma: Responsible for pain and pleasure that we feel.
  2. Body Determing (Näm) karma: Determines the physique of the body that the soul will occupy (i.e. tall, short, beautiful, ugly, etc.).
  3. Status determining (Gotra) karma: Determines social and economic status.
  4. Life Span determining (Äyusha) karma: Determines the life span of the soul. The Karma takes effect at the two-thirds point of any jiv's life. It is at the two-thirds point that the next life of the jiv will be determined. If at this point the jiv is engaging in good deeds, then the next life will be comfortable. If not, then the next life shall be unpleasant. The Jain religion insists that since we do not know that two-thirds point of our life, one should constantly be engaging in religious activities and good deeds. If it is not determined at this point, then the karma will take effect at the two-thirds point of the remaining time of life. If it is still not determined, it will assuredly take place at the moments leading up to, and time of death. This karma does not take place if the soul is to be liberated in the current life.

The duration and extent of the results of the bonded Karmic particles depend on the vigour and quality of passion the soul had when they were first gained. Weaker vigour and passion result in smaller and shorter results, while stronger vigour and passion result in greater and longer results.

Nine Tattvas

The Nine Tattvas are conisidered to be the backbone of the Jain philosphy. It essentially instructs the method of attaining salvation. Without proper knowledge of these tattvas, one cannot progress towards liberation. The jain religion explains that the theory of Karma is intertwined with these nine notions.

Beliefs and practices

Jain monks practise strict asceticism and strive to make this, or one of the coming births their last. On the other hand, the laity, who pursue less rigorous practices, strive to attain rational faith and to do as much good as possible in this lifetime. Following strict Jain ethics, the laity choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid any violent ways of earning a livelihood.

Jains believe that Devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help jiva to obtain liberation. This must be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, devas themselves cannot achieve liberation until they reincarnate as humans and undertake the difficult act of removing karma. Their efforts to attain the exalted state of Siddha, the permanent liberation of jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, must be their own.

The Jain ethical code is taken very seriously. Five vows are followed by both laity and monks/nuns. These are:

  1. Nonviolence (ahimsa, or ahinsa)
  2. Truth (satya)
  3. Non-stealing (asteya)
  4. Chastity (brahma-charya)
  5. Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah)

For laypersons, 'chastity' means confining sexual experiences to marriage. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being vegetarian and some choose to be vegan. Jains are expected to be non-violent in thought, word and deed, towards humans and every living creature. While performing holy deeds, Svetambara Jains wear cloths over their mouths and noses to avoid spittle falling on texts or revered images.

Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will towards others and practise forgiveness. They believe that Atma (Soul) can lead one to becoming Parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. No jiv can give another the path to salvation, but can only show the way. Jains refrain from all types of violence (Ahimsa) and have isolated 18 types of sinful activites, that which, if eradicated, can eventually lead to liberation:

  1. Violence
  2. Untruth
  3. Theft
  4. Unchastity
  5. Possesiveness
  6. Anger
  7. Arrogance
  8. Greed
  9. Deceit
  10. Attachment
  11. Hatred
  12. Arguing
  13. Accusation
  14. Gossip
  15. Criticism
  16. Predilection and Disliking
  17. Malice
  18. Wrong belief

Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by this Jain emphasis on peaceful, protective living and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

Jain Symbols

Jains have some core symbols. One symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of a hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastik.

Major Jain symbols include:

Jain fasting

Fasting is very common among Jains and a part of Jain festivals.One of the most prominent festivals of Jains is called Paryushan. Its a festival of 8 days which come during the moonsoon. Most Jains fast at special times during the year, during festivals and on holy days. The monsoon period (in India) is a time of fasting. However, a Jain may fast at any time, sometimes if s/he feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts are to encourage Jains to do whatever they can, to maintain whatever self control is possible for an individual.

The aim of fasting

Monks, nuns and laity fast as penance, to control desires. Fasting purifies the body and the mind, reminding one of Mahavir's emphasis on renunciation and asceticism. Mahavir spent months fasting and in contemplation. It is not sufficient for a Jain simply to stop eating when fasting, s/he must also stop wanting to eat. Control over one's mind is a major goal. If one continue to desire food, the fast is pointless.

Types of fast

There are several types of fasts:

  • Complete fasting: No food or water for a period.
  • Partial fasting: Eating less than you desire and to simply avoid hunger.
  • Vruti Sankshep: Limiting the number of food items eaten.
  • Rasa Parityag: Giving up favourite foods.
  • Great fasts: Some monks fast for months at a time, following Mahavir, who fasted for over 6 months.

Different types of fast

  • Choviyharo Upavas - To give up food and water for the whole day.
  • Upavas - To give up only food for the whole day.
  • Digamber Upvas - One may drink water only once a day, before sunset.
  • Shwetamber Upvas - One may drink water, provided this is done before sunset.
  • Ekasan - To eat one meal a day at one sitting and drink water as desired between sunrise and sunset.
  • Beasan - To eat two meals a day, (one meal per sitting) and drink water any times between sunrise and sunset.
  • Ayambil: Eating food once in one sitting. The food is spice free and boiled or cooked, without milk, curds, ghee, oil, or green/raw vegetables.

  • Chaththa - To give up both food and water or only food continuously for two days.
  • Aththama - To give up food and water or only food continuously for three days.
  • Aththai - To give up food and water or only food continuously for eight days.
  • Masaksamana - To give up food and water or only food continuously for a whole month.
  • Santhara - To give up food and water entirely as voluntary death.
  • Navkarsi: Food and water is consumed forty-eight (48) minutes after sunrise. The orthodox brush teeth and rinse mouths only after sunrise.
  • Porsi: Taking food and water three hours after sunrise.
  • Sadh-porsi: Taking food and water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
  • Purimuddh: Taking food and water six hours after sunrise.
  • Avadhdh: Taking food and water eight hours after sunrise.
  • Tivihar: After sunset no food or juice shall be taken, but one may drink water. Many Jains practise this daily.
  • Navapad oli - During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day in the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. Ayambils may be restricted to one kind of grain per day.

Other austerities are varshitap, Vardhaman, and visasthanak tap, etc.

Jain literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvarth Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Shravakachar, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Later Jain literature was written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars, etc), Hindi (Chhahdhal, Mokshamarg Prakashak, etc), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane, etc.). Tatvarth Sutra, Padma Puran (Ram Charitra), Jin PravachanRahasya-Kosh, Chhahdhal and Shravakachars such as Ratnakarandak Shravakachar and Shravak Dharma Prakash may be downloaded at http://www.AtmaDharma.com See Jain literature for more details.

Jain worship and rituals

Jains have built temples where Tirthankar images are venerated. Jain rituals may be elaborate, for symbolic objects are offered, and Tirthankars praised in song. But some Jain sects refuse to enter temples or venerate images, considering them simply guides. Sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains, such as the Terapanthi Jains, regard holy statues or temples as totally unnecessary. Every day Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the Namaskara Sutra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship.

Jain rituals include:

  • Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha
  • Pratikraman
  • Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc.

Jain marriage ceremonies and family rites are usually variations of orthodox Hindu rituals.

Digambar and Shvetambar traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha divided into two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after Mahāvīr's nirvan. Some historians believe there was no clear division until the 5th century. The best available information indicates that the chief Jain monk, Bhadrabahu, foresaw famine and led about 12,000 Digambar followers to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find the Shvetambar sect. In 453, the Valabhi council edited and compiled traditional Shvetambar scriptures.

Digambar monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes are like other possessions, increasing dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. Shvetambar monks wear white clothes for practical reasons and believe there is nothing in Jain scripture that condemns wearing clothes. Sadhvis (nuns) of both sects wear white. These differing views arise from different interpretations of the same holy books. There are minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's literature.

There are other differences between Digambar and Shvetambar traditions. The former believe that women cannot attain moksha, while Shvetambars believe that women may certainly attain liberation. Digambars believe that Mahavir was not married while Shvetambars believe the princely Mahavir was married and had a daughter. Apart from doubts about women attaining moksh, another difference is in the first Jain prayer, the Namaskar Sutra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine.

Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the Kushana period. Tirthankars are represented without clothes and monks, with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as 'ardha-phalak'. These are mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect, believed to have originated from the Ardha-phalak, follows Digambar nudity, along with several Shvetambar beliefs.

Both groups are subdivided into sects, such as Sthanakvasi, Terapanthi, Deravasi, and Bisapanth. Some are 'murtipujak' (image worshippers) while others, 'non murtipujak', refuse statues or images. Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices.

In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee with representatives from all the sects.

Geographical spread and influence

The pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar possibly gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavir, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism.

At 5 to 6 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India; Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. Jainism has a large following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many had to flee to the Indian Punjab.

Jains follow their religious practises in all the metropolises such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,Chennai,Ahmedabad, Bangalore, and Hyderabad.

There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially, they all follow the same principles.

Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia, etc. At various times, Jainism was found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka and what are now Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Afghanistan.

Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States and several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects.

Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion has been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals may be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Jain contributions to Indian culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable. Jainism has the most significant influence in the region of Gujarat. The earliest known Gujarat text Bharat-bahubali Ras, was written by a Jain monk. Of the most important people in Gujarat's Jain history were the Acharya Hemachandra Suri and his pupil, the Chalukya ruler Kumarpal.

Jains are among the wealthiest of all Indians and also among the most philanthropic. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat.

Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian, and its cuisine has pleasing, soothing aromas, as pungent foods like onions and garlic are omitted.

In contrast to some religious groups, Jains encourage their monks to go for higher education and to get involved in research. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups, and parallels the Christian priests and nuns.

According to the 2001 census, the Jains are India's most literate community. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.

Literature The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages.

  • In Kannada almost the entire early literature is of Jain origin.
  • Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
  • Several Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
  • Practically all the known texts of the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism and Indian archaeology

Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India. (Refer to the discussion page as well as the 'specialized sources', below.)

Decipherment of Brahmi by James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism.

Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushan, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, and Rajput and later periods.

Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.

Holy sites

There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.

There is also one temple in New Jersey, USA, considered worthy of pilgrimage. Siddhachalam.

Jain Temples and Associations in the West

Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html, http://www.jaina.org/

Holy days

The Jain Calendar gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vrats and fairs.

Jainism and other religions

South Asia has a rich history of diverse philosophies. Connections among these are discussed at:

Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:

See also

References

Introductory:
  • Jain, Duli C. (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
  • Parik, Vastupal Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002.
Detailed Introduction:
  • Shah, Natubhai, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
  • Jaini, Padmanabh S., Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
  • Titze, Kurt, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
  • Wiley, Kristi, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
  • Mishra, Mamta, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000.
  • Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord, University of California Press, 1996.
  • Vallely, Anne, Guardians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002. (Jain nuns)
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001. (Jain laywomen)
  • The Assembly of Listeners, edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey, 5-14. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Specialized sources:

  • Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
  • Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
  • Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
  • Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
  • Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
  • Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
  • Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
  • Cort, John, ''Jains in the World: Religious Values and Ideology in India', New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen
  • Vallely, Anne, Gaurdians of the Transcendent, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
  • Kelting, Whitney, Singing to the Jinas, New York: Oxford, 2001.

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