Inquisition

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Inquisitions :: Inquisition

The term Inquisition (Latin: Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium) refers broadly to a number of historical movements orchestrated by the Roman Catholic Church aimed at securing religious and doctrinal unity through the conversion, and sometimes persecution, of alleged heretics.

Ancient origins

Christianity and the Christian Church were from the beginning of their history suffering from two threats: external persecution by the Roman Emperors, and internal strife caused by theological disputes.

Early examples are the Jerusalem Council reported in Acts of the Apostles (Chapter 15) and the many occasions, in which the Apostle Paul defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers, as does the writer of the Book of Revelation.

Since the 2nd century, Church authorities (bishops and local synods) reacted to these disputes by condemning some theologians as heretics and defining doctrine more clearly to combat perceived errors. In this way, orthodoxy (Greek: the right view) was defined contrast to heresy (wrong choice). The most notable heresies were Gnosticism, Marcionism, Montanism and various forms of Monarchianism. During this period, those condemned for heresy were excomunicated from the Church community and only readmitted after having recanted the controversial opinions. Bishops and other church leaders were stripped of their offices and had to resign valuable placed in their care.

When Constantine adopted Christianity, he among other things hoped that the new religion would help unifying the Empire. However, such expectations were threatened by the appearance of heresies inside of the Church. Constantine felt compelled to intervolve himself with these doctrinal or disciplinary struggles, as in the case of the Donatists or the Arians. He tried to enforce decisions reached by the Church by banishing obstinate opponents - clergy and laity - of these decisions. Non-Christians however were not concerned by these measures. Some of his successors, while leaning to the sides of the Arians, increased their use of force in Church matters, regularly banishing bishops from their sees. Theodosius, an unequivocal supporter of Orthodox Christianity, also made Christianity the official religion of the Empire.

The first heretic to be executed was Priscillian of Avila. Having been condemned for heresy by a synod, he appealed to the Emperor Maximus; the latter, however, had Priscillian and six of his followers beheaded at Treves in 385. This act was approved by a synod which met at Treves in the same year, though the most prominent bishops of that time, Ambrose of Milan, Martin of Tours and Pope Siricius protested against Priscillian's execution, largely on the jurisdictional grounds that an ecclesiastical case should not be decided by a civil tribunal, and worked to reduce the persecution.

The Catholic Encyclopedia notes that "various penal laws were enacted by the Christian emperors against heretics as being guilty of crime against the State. In both the Theodosian and Justinian codes they were styled infamous persons ... In some particularly aggravated cases sentence of death was pronounced upon heretics, though seldom executed in the time of the Christian emperors of Rome."Catholic Encyclopedia Though the death penalty was seldom executed during the Early Middle Ages, these laws nonetheless later served as the basis of the prosecution of heretics, especially after Emperor Frederick II had confirmed these rulings.

History

Historians distinguish between four different manifestations of the Inquisition: the Medieval or Episcopal Inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Portuguese Inquisition and the Roman Inquisition.

Because of its objective, combatting heresy, the Inquisition had jurisdiction only over baptized members of the Church (which however encompassed the vast majority of the population). Non-Christians could still be tried for blasphemy by secular courts. Also, most of the witchtrials were held by secular courts.

Medieval Inquisition

Main article: Medieval Inquisition

The dealing with issues of heresy had traditionally been in the care of the bishop, each in his diocesis. This was mostly done ad hoc, without applying any specific institution or regulation.

In 1184, a papal bull entitled Ad abolendam ("For the purpose of doing away with") responded to the growing Cathar heresy in southern France by establishing the Medieval Inquisition. The word inquisition (from Latin "to enquire") referred to a novel feature of process: Instead of relying on accusations by private persons, the bishop was ordered to enquire about the existence of heresies in his diocesis. This was done by appointing special officials, comparable to Public prosecutors. It is also called the Episcopal Inquisition because, despite the innovations in process, it was still administered on the authority of the local bishops.

The Papal Inquisition in the 1230s was in response to the failures of the Episcopal Inquisition and was staffed by professionals, trained specifically for the job as decreed by the Pope. Individuals were chosen from secular clergy and the various orders, but primarily they came from the new Mendicant Orders.

In France, Louis VIII decreed in 1226 that persons excommunicated by the diocesan bishop, or his delegate, should receive "meet punishment" (debita animadversio). In 1249 Louis IX ordered barons to deal with heretics according to the dictates of duty (de ipsis faciant quod debebant). A decree of the Council of Toulouse (1229) makes it appear probable that in France death at the stake was already comprehended as in keeping with the aforesaid debita animadversio. To seek to trace in these measures the influence of imperial or papal ordinances is vain, since the burning of heretics had already come to be regarded as prescriptive. It is said in the "Etablissements de St. Louis et coutumes de Beauvaisis", ch. cxiii (Ordonnances des Roys de France, I, 211): "Quand le juge laurait examiné [le suspect se il trouvait, quil feust bougres, si le devrait faire envoier à la justice laie, et la justice laie le dolt fere ardoir. "The "Coutumes de Beauvaisis" correspond to the German "Sachsenspiegel", or "Mirror of Saxon Laws", compiled about 1235, which also embodies as a law sanctioned by custom the execution of unbelievers at the stake (sal man uf der hurt burnen). In Italy Emperor Frederick II, as early as 22 November, 1220 (Mon. Germ., II, 243), issued a rescript against heretics, conceived, however quite in the spirit of Innocent III, and Honorius III commissioned his legates to see to the enforcement in Italian cities of both the canonical decrees of 1215 and the imperial legislation of 1220. From the foregoing it cannot be doubted that up to 1224 there was no imperial law ordering, or presupposing as legal, the burning of heretics. The rescript for Lombardy of 1224 (Mon. Germ., II, 252; cf. ibid., 288) is accordingly the first law in which death by fire is contemplated (cf. Ficker, op. cit., 196). That Honorius III was in any way concerned in the drafting of this ordinance cannot be maintained; indeed the emperor was all the less in need of papal inspiration as the burning of heretics in Germany was then no longer rare; his legists, moreover, would certainly have directed the emperors attention to the ancient Roman Law that punished high treason with death, and Manichaeism in particular with the stake. The imperial rescripts of 1220 and 1224 were adopted into ecclesiastical criminal law in 1231, and were soon applied at Rome. It was then that the Inquisition of the Middle Ages came into being.

Spanish Inquisition

Main article: Spanish Inquisition

The Spanish Inquisition was set up by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Castile in 1478 with the approval of Pope (Sixtus IV). In contrast to the previous Inquisition, it operated completely under royal authority, though staffed by secular clergy and orders, and independently of the Holy See. It aimed primarily at converts from Judaism, who were suspected of either continuing to adhere to their old religion (often after having been converted under duress) or having fallen back into it, and later at Protestants. After religious disputes waned in the 17th century, the Spanish Inquisition more and more developed into a secret police against internal threats to the state.

The Spanish Inquisition would subsequently be employed in certain Spanish colonies such as Peru and Mexico.

The Spanish Inquisition continued in the Americas until Mexican Independence and was not abolished in Europe until 1834.

In the public imagination, the Spanish Inquisition continues as an proverbial example of religious persecution. Some scholars however have opined that the numbers of the Spanish inquisition's victims have been greatly exagerated, that the Inquisition is one of the features of a Black Legend. Also, some argue that the Spanish Inquisition was responsible in part for averting in Spain the kind of religious wars that plagued France and Germany. Similar arguments are made about averting witch trials in Spain.

Portuguese Inquisition

Main article: Portuguese Inquisition

The Portuguese Inquisition was established in Portugal in 1536 by the King of Portugal, João III, as a Portuguese analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition.

The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian city of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. Established in 1560, it was aimed primarily at wayward new converts from Hinduism.

Roman Inquisition

Main article: Roman Inquisition

Pope Paul III established, in 1542, a permanent congregation staffed with cardinals and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, part of the Roman Curia, became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a prelate and two assistants all chosen from the Dominican Order. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions.

The arguably most famous case tried by the Roman Inquisition was that of Galileo Galilei in 1633.

Other uses of the word "Inquisition"

Even though the last Inquisition (The Spanish Inquisition) ended in 1834 almost 200 years ago, the word "Inquisition" remains a part of modern vocabulary; even those with no interest in European history associate it with negative meanings.^* Because of the negative images associated with the Inquisition, the term has taken on a pejorative usage, and is often used to express disapproval, and is often used in a non-neutral manner, and not as a neutral historical descriptor.

Emperor Qian Long's literary inquisition in Qing Dynasty China.

Some Protestant Christian fundamentalist authors like Jack Chick and Alberto Rivera believe the Nazi Holocaust was an Inquisition against the Jews undertaken by Hitler at the behest of the Pope.

In modern American politics, United States Senate investigations are often called "Inquisitions" as a means of expressing disapproval of the investigators. For example some people call the Second Red Scare an inquisition.

Robert Anton Wilson's book The New Inquisition (ISBN 1561840025) is critical of the application of the Scientific Method in the 20th century.

Derivative works

The Inquisitions have been the subject of many cultural works. Some include:

The Spanish Inquisition was the subject of a classic Monty Python sketch ("Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!").
The short story by Edgar Allan Poe, The Pit and the Pendulum was set during the Spanish Inquisition.
A body known as the Inquisition exists in the fictional Warhammer 40,000 universe.
Mel Brooks's 1981 film The History of the World, Part I contains a musical number about the Spanish Inquisition.
In Terry Pratchett's Small Gods, the Omnian church has a Quisition, with sub-sections Inquisition and Exquisition.
In J.K. Rowling's 2003 book Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Professor Dolores Umbridge sets up an Inquisition at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, with herself as the High Inquisitor.
The "Dark Ages" setting in the World of Darkness (WoD) fantasy universe makes heavy use of the Inquisition as that particular setting takes place during the early 13th century.
The computer game " Legacy of the Crusader" made by the late Black Isle Studios uses the Spanish Inquisition as a key plot for the storyline and development of the game.
Man of La Mancha is a Broadway musical which tells the story of the classic novel Don Quixote as a play within a play, performed by prisoners as they await a hearing with the Spanish Inquisition.
Exterminatus Now is a furry/comedy/sci-fi webcomic. Its two lead characters, Eastwood and Virus are both Inquisitors, trying to rid their world ( Mobius) of daemons.

External links

References

Edward M. Peters, Inquisition. (University of California Press, 1989). ISBN 0520066308
- A brief, balanced inquiry, with an especially good section on the 'Myth of the Inquisition' (see The Inquisition Myth). This is particularly valuable because much of the history available in English of the Inquisition was written in the 19th century by Protestants interested in documenting the dangers of Catholicism or Catholic apologists demonstrating that the Inquisition had been an entirely reasonable judicial body without flaws.
Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 0300078803
- This revised edition of his 1965 original contributes to the understanding of the Spanish Inquisition in its local context.
Cecil & Irene Roth, A history of the Marranos, Sepher-Hermon Press, 1974.
Simon Whitechapel, Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition (Creation Books, 2003). ISBN 1840681055
William Thomas Walsh, Characters of the Inquisition (TAN Books, 1997). ISBN 0895553260
- Favorable treatment of inquisitors.
Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis,
B.Herder 1898 - ^*
- Additional Sources supporting Edward Peters and Henry Kamen
Parker, Geoffrey “Some Recent Work on the Inquisition in Spain and Italy” Journal of Modern History 54:3 1982
Given, James B Inquisition and Medieval Society New York, Cornell University Press, 2001
Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain (4 volumes), (New York and London, 1906–1907).
J.A. Llorente, “Historia Critica de la Inquisicion de Espana”
W.T. Walsh, “Isabella of Spain,” (1931).
Genaro Garcia, “Autos de fe de la Inquisicion de Mexico,” (1910).
F. Garau, “La Fee Triunfante,” (1691-reprinted 1931).
V. Vignau, “Catalogo... de la Inquisicion de Toledo,” (1903).
J. Baker, “History of the Inquisition,” (1736).
J. Marchant, “A Review of the Bloody Tribunal,” (1770).
E.N Adler, “Autos de fe and the Jew,” (1908).
Ludovico a Paramo, “De Origine et Progressu Sanctae Inquisitionis,” (1598).
J.M. Marin, “Procedimientos de la Inquisicion” (2 volumes), (1886).
R. Cappa, “La Inquisicion Espanola,” (1888).
A. Paz y Mellia, “Catalogo Abreviado de Papeles de Inquisicion,” (1914).
M. Jouve, “Torquemada,” (1935).
Sir Alexandr G. Cardew, “A Short History of the Inquisition,” (1933).
G.G. Coulton, “The Inquisition,” (1929).
Ramon de Vilana Perlas, “La Verdadera Practica Apostolica de el S. Tribunal de la Inquisicion,” (1735).
H.B. Piazza, “A Short and True Account of the Inquisition and its Proceeding,” (1722).
A.L. Maycock, “The Inquisition,” (1926).
H. Nickerson, “The Inquisition,” (1932).
L. Tanon, “Histoire des Tribunaux de l’Inquisition,” (1893).
A. Herculano, “Historia da Origem e Estabelecimento da Inquisicao em Portugal,” (English translation, 1926).
Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. (1999).
Simon Whitechapel, Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition (Creation Books, 2003).
Miranda Twiss, The Most Evil Men And Women In History (Michael O'Mara Books Ltd., 2002).
Geoffrey Parker “Some Recent Work on the Inquisition in Spain and Italy” Journal of Modern History 54:3 1982
Warrenn Carroll, "Isabel: the Catholic Queen" Front Royal, Virginia, 1991 (Christendom Press)
Joseph de Maistre, Letters on the Spanish Inquisition (1822, composed 1815):— late defense of the Inquisition by the principal author of the Counter-Enlightenment. *Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B.Herder 1898

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