Imperial Japanese Army

The Imperial Japanese Army (Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國陸軍 Shinjitai: 大日本帝国陸軍 Dai-Nippon Teikoku Rikugun) was the official ground based armed force of Imperial Japan from 1867 to 1945. It was controlled by the Imperial General Headquarters and the Ministry of War of Japan.

History

The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) was created to replace the traditional Japanese samurai with a modern European-style conscript army during the chain of events, known as Meiji Restoration, that led to the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate (bakufu) and the restoring of Imperial rule in Japan. It was originally known simply as the Army (rikugun) but after 1928, as part of the Army's turn toward romantic nationalism and also in the service of its political ambitions, it retitled itself the Imperial Army (kōgun).

The Imperial Japanese Army was initially developed with the assistance of French and later German advisors only after Franco-Prussian War; eventually it had grown to become the most modern army in Asia, well-trained, well equipped and high in morale. However, it was basically an infantry force which at times was deficient in artillery, tanks and other armoured vehicles when compared with its European contemporaries. Since Japan had no independent air force, the Imperial Japanese Army also developed a potent air arm, the Army Air Service equipped with modern locally-built aircraft with the primary mission of tactically supporting the ground operations.

The Imperial Japanese Army saw combat during the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), the occupation of Formosa in 1895 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1905; during the occupation of Korea in 1910; at the seizing of the German territory at Qingdao during World War I; at the occupation of Manchukuo in 1931; and throughout the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). From December 1941 the Imperial Japanese Army served as the main instrument in the Japanese Empire's expansion across East Asia during World War II. It was finally dissolved in September 1945 by the Allied forces, and later replaced by Japan Self-Defense Forces.

Throughout the second Sino-Japanese War and World War II the Imperial Japanese Army had gained a reputation both for its fanaticism and for its brutality against prisoners of war and civilians alike. After Japan surrendered in the summer of 1945 many Imperial Japanese Army officers and enlisted men were tried and punished for committing numerous atrocities and war crimes.

Several reasons are theorized for the especially brutal and unmerciful behavior exhibited by many members of the IJA towards their adversaries or non-Japanese civilians. One is probably the brutal behavior that they themselves experienced. The IJA was known for the extremely harsh treatment of its enlisted soldiers, including beatings, unnecessarily strenuous duty tasks, lack of adequate food, and other violent or harsh disciplinary tactics. Also, the ideology in which IJA members were indoctrinated, described in further detail below, of their own inherent superiority over their adversaries may have had a part. Finally, the Japanese culture, often described as one of "group shame" over "internal shame" is believed by many to facilitate actions by groups that the individuals involved wouldn't have considered doing if acting on their own.

After Japan lost Word War II in 1945, both the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy were dismantled by the U.S. occupying forces. In 1954, Japan created the Japan Self-Defense Forces in order to be less reliant on U.S. forces to provide their military defense. These forces, though significantly smaller then the Imperial Japanese Army and ostensibly purely for defense, essentially constitutes the modern army of Japan.

Ideology

Japanese nationalism meant that the military was built around a concept of the time period: a Rich Country has a Strong Military. Nationalists asserted that Japan as a land was sacred, and its people were special due to a combination of Zen and other forms of Japanese Buddhism with Shinto. Service in the Japanese military was seen as service to the Emperor. Each soldier in theory believed it was a great honor to die for the Emperor as the samurai concept "to serve" was deeply ingrained in all the soldiers culture.

The concept of Yamato Damashi equipped each soldier with a strict code: never be captured, never break down, and never surrender. To be a coward or to be captured was a disgrace to one's family, community, and country. Each soldier was trained to fight to the death and was expected to die before suffering dishonor. Often, imperial soldiers would shout "Banzai" before charging into battle, believing that the exuberant cheer would indicate their willingness to die with honor.

Every soldier accepted that they were expected to serve stoically as part of their bushido, represented in the idea of death before dishonor. Sadao Araki, an Army theorist, devised the contemporary adaptation to bushido code as a Seishin Kyoiku (spiritual training) doctrine for the army. As such, each soldier would leave everything behind when going into the service, needing nothing but honor. Indeed, honor as represented by name and face meant everything to these soldiers. Yamato Damashi is an old Nippon spirit of self-pride and persistence in the face of grave danger, a sort of kokoro.

Tied in with this concept of bushido was immense, religious respect for the Emperor. Although the Emperor was practically a figurehead, with the real power being held by the bureaucrats underneath him, he was still considered a divine figure. In theory the commander in chief, the Emperor usually went along with whatever the government "asked" him to do. The IJA had only two Emperor commander in chiefs, Taishō and Shōwa. The Emperor wore the commander in chief's uniform, and was saluted by the Imperial Forces, at all ceremonial functions involving the IJA forces.

At the time, the Imperial government could only mobilize the military if the cabinet ministers came to a unanimous consensus on the order. The role of the Emperor lay in giving his blessing to execute and bind such orders. Since the Emperor was required to be present at all Imperial government meetings for their decision to be binding, The Emperor silently observed all the official arguments made by the ministers. Presuming his consent was given, these requests became the orders of the Emperor, enforceable upon the people of Japan.

Special reserved power of the Emperor

Only in rare moments of Imperial council, where the government ministers are completely unable to agree, and where the votes of all the government ministers tallies as even, do the government ministers asks for the Emperor's opinion. In those moments the Emperor acted as a tie breaker in giving an opinion, on decisions only within the choices presented him by the government ministers.

In World War II, the Imperial Japanese government used this special ability of the Emperor Hirohito to decide to end the war. In 1945, executing the will of the Imperial government, Emperor Hirohito for the first and last time directly ordered via recorded radio broadcast to all of Japan, as his last role as commander in chief, the surrender to United States forces.

Strength

1870, consisted of 12,000 men.
1885, consisted of seven divisions including the Imperial Guard Division.
In the early 1900's, the IJA consisted of 12 divisions, the Imperial Guard Division, and numerous other units. These contained the following:
- 380,000 active duty and 1st Reserve personnel - former Class A and B(1) conscripts after 2 year active tour with 17 and 1/2 year commitment
- 50,000 Second line Reserve - Same as above but former Class B(2) conscripts
- 220,000 National Army
  - 1st National Army - 37 to 40 year old men from end of 1st Reserve to 40 years old.
  - 2nd National Army - untrained 20 year olds and over 40 year old trained reserves.
- 4,250,000 males available for service and mobilization.
1934 - army increased to 17 Divisions
1940 - 376,000 active with 2 million reserves in 31 divisions
- 2 Divisions in Japan (Imperial Guard plus one other)
- 2 Divisions in Korea
- 27 Divisions in China and Manchuria
In late 1941 - 460,000 active in 41 divisions
- 2 divisions in Japan and Korea
- 12 divisions in Manchuria
- 27 divisions in China
- plus 59 Brigade equivalents.
  - Independent brigades, Indenpendent Mixed Brigades, Cavalry Brigades, Amphibious Brigades, Independent Mixed regiments, Independent Regiments.
1945 - 5 million active in 145 Divisions (includes 3 Imperial Guard), plus numerous individual units, with a large militia
- includes Imperial Japanese Army Air Service.
Japan Defense Army in 1945 had 55 divisions with 2 million men.

Total military in August 1945 was 6,095,000.

Arsenals

Additionally Japanese Army managed various Arsenals:

Japanese Army Sagami Arsenal - with Mitsubishi, developed and manufactured tanks
Japanese Army Sasebo Arsenal - with Mitsubishi, manufactured tanks
Japanese Army Heijo Arsenal - with Nambu, manufactured hand and long infantry weapons
Japanese Army Mukden Arsenal - with Nambu, manufactured infantry weapons
Japanese Army Tachikawa Arsenal - dedicated to develop and manufacture aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service