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The landmass now comprising the United Kingdom had a long history of immigration from mainland Europe, from the Beaker people of the 3rd millennium BC, to the waves of invasions by the Roman Empire and the Anglo-Saxons and Normans. Immigration by people outside Europe began on a small scale from the Colonies in the 19th century, before increasing to unprecedented levels from the mid-20th century to the present day.
The history of immigration to the United Kingdom is, essentially, the history of the development of the United Kingdom itself. However, recent scientific investigations have shown that the biological (as opposed to cultural) influence of pre-20th-century immigration on Britain may have been rather small, marked by continuity rather than change. The Oxford archaeologist David Miles states that 80% of the genetic makeup of white Britons come from probably "just a few thousand" nomadic tribesmen who arrived 12,000 years ago, at the end of the Ice Age. Later waves of immigration were too small to have significantly affected the genetic homogeneity of the existing population. Miles also acknowledged that the techniques used to explore genetic ancestry are still in their infancy and that many more samples are needed to fully understand the origins of the British people.The Tribes of Britain James Owen, National Geographic 19 July 2005.
Pre-Historical and Historical immigration up to 1066
Ice age
Modern humans arrived in what would become the United Kingdom 35,000 years ago during the Palaeolithic. During the following Ice Age they may have been forced out, returning 10,000 years ago as the Ice Age ended (Mesolithic becoming the Neolithic with the advent of farming). As sea levels rose these first immigrants would have been isolated from mainland Europe.The Beaker people (bronze age)
Defined by a style of pottery from the 3rd millennium BC found across most of Europe in archæological digs the Beaker people represent early immigration to the United Kingdom although not as a mass migrationary group.It was originally thought that the settlers that came with these beakers also had other defining features that show they are distinctive from earlier dwellers of the British Isles, such as the development of metalworking and the mode of burial of the dead that came into use at about this time. However it is generally accepted by archeologists today that the beakers and other artefacts found across Europe that are attributed to the Beaker people are indicative of the development of particular manufacturing skills, possibly by the influence of neighbouring peoples, rather than as a result of mass migrations that spread independently of any population movement.
Therefore although this represents the earliest known migration of people to the United Kingdom this migration was on a much smaller scale than other migrationary groups that came later.
Celtic settlement (iron age, Urnfield culture, Hallstatt culture, La Tène culture)
The Celts were a number of interrelated peoples in central Europe sharing a branch of Indo-European languages indicative of a common origin in a Proto-Celtic language. The first literary reference to the Celtic people, as keltoi or hidden people, is by the Greek Hecataeus in 517 BC. It is estimated that the Celtic people arrived in Britain between 1500 BC and 400 BC.The conventional historical view holds that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries.
The nature of their interactions with the indigenous populations of the isles is unknown. However, by the Roman period most of the inhabitants of the Isles were speaking Goidelic or Brythonic languages with close counterparts to Gaulish languages spoken on the European mainland. The degree to which the spread of Celtic languages was due to peaceful cultural interaction, or to military conquest, is a debated point among historians. The relative paucity of surviving information about the inhabitants of the British Isles prior to Celtic influence suggests conquest.
Roman Empire's invasion of Britain
The first Roman invasion of the British Isles was led by Julius Caesar in 55 BC; the second a year later in 54 BC. Although no territory was taken for the Roman Empire in either conquest, this was the start of Roman settlement of Britain. The Romans had many supporters among the Celtic tribal leaders, who agreed to pay tributes to Rome in return for Roman protection.The Romans returned in AD 44, led by Claudius, this time establishing control, and establishing a province Britannia. Initially an oppressive rule, gradually the new leaders gained a firmer hold on their new territory which at one point stretched from the south coast of England to Wales and as far away as Scotland (though they didn't hold the latter for long).
Over the 400 years of Roman occupation of Britain the majority of settlers were soldiers garrisoned on the mainland. It was with constant contact with Rome and the rest of Romanised Europe through trade and industry that the native Britons themselves adopted Roman culture and customs.
Arrival of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes
Germanic (Frankish) mercenaries were employed in Gaul by the Roman empire and it is speculated in a similar manner, the first Germanic immigrants to Britain arrived at the invitation of the ruling classes. The traditional division into Angles, Saxons and Jutes is first seen in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum by Bede, however historical and archæological research has shown that a wide range of Germanic peoples from the coast of Frisia, Lower Saxony, Jutland and Southern Sweden moved to Britain in this era.After the withdrawal of the last legions from Britain by Honorius in the early 5th century, the number of newcomers increased, and it is speculated that relations with the ruling Romanised Britons became strained. By about 449 open conflict had broken out, and the immigrants began to establish their own kingdoms in what would eventually become the Heptarchy.
Y chromosome analysis
- From Genetic analysis section, Sub-Roman Britain
Arrival of the Scots
During the 5th century, the Dál Riatan Scots started raiding north-western Britain from their base in north-east Ireland. After the Roman withdrawal this developed from piracy to full-scale invasion and within a hundred years they had established a kingdom in Argyll.Viking raids
The earliest date given for a Viking raid of Britain is 789, when according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Portland was attacked. A more reliable report dates from June 8, 793, when the monastery at Lindisfarne on the east coast of England was pillaged by foreign seafarers. These raiders, whose expeditions extended well into the 9th century, were gradually followed by settlers who brought a new culture and tradition markedly different from that of the prevalent Anglo-Saxon society. These enclaves rapidly expanded, and soon the Viking warriors were establishing areas of control to such an extent that they could reasonably be described as kingdoms.The Danelaw, established through the Viking conquest of large parts of England, was formally established as a result of the Treaty of Wedmore in the late 9th century, after Alfred the Great had defeated the Viking Guthrum at the Battle of Edington. The Danelaw represented a consolidation of power for Alfred; the subsequent conversion of Guthrum to Christianity underlines the ideological significance of this shift in the balance of power. The Danelaw was gradually eroded by Anglo-Saxon raids in later years.
In parts of England today the influence of the Vikings can still be seen, particularly in place names in the East Midlands and the north.
Historical immigration (1066–1875)
Norman invasion
The Norman invasion of Britain is normally considered the last successful attempt in history by a foreign army to take control of the Kingdom of England by means of military occupation. From the Norman point of view, William the Conqueror was considered the legitimate heir to the realm (as explained in the Bayeux Tapestry), and the invasion was required to secure this against the usurpation of Harold Godwinson.In the years following the invasion to 1204, Normandy and England kept their close connection. This was in part secured by granting aristocrats lands in both domains, giving an incentive on all levels to maintain the union. The influx of Norman military and ecclesiastical aristocracy changed the demographic nature of England, leading to the creation of an Anglo-Norman population.
There was further immigration and emigration during the time of the Angevin Empire from much of the west coast of France. After the loss of much of the Angevin lands in 1202 the strong trade links between Gascony and England led to a flow of people between the lands.
Huguenots
The Huguenots, French Protestants facing a new wave of persecution, began arriving in England in numbers around 1670. King Charles II offered them sanctuary, and in all some 40–50,000 arrived. Many settled in the Spitalfields area of London, and, being former silk-weavers, brought new energy to this industry in the area and raised silk to an important fashion item in Britain. It has been estimated that as many as a quarter of London's population today have a Huguenot ancestor.Blacks
During the eighteenth century a substantial population of black people, thought to number about 15,000 by mid-century, were brought to Britain initially largely as the captain's share of the cargo of transatlantic slave ships. Many of these people became servants in aristocratic households, and are frequently depicted in contemporary portraits of the family - often depicted in a similar manner to family pets. Many black people became part of the urban poor and were often depicted in the caricatures and cartoons of William Hogarth, but others attained highly respected positions in society, e.g. Ignatius Sancho, or Frank Barber - a Jamaican who was given to Dr Samuel Johnson as a small child and who became his assistant in writing his Dictionary and was left £1500 (over £100,000 at todays' values) in Johnson's will. Following the British defeat in the American War of Independence over 1100 black troops who had fought on the losing side were transported to Britain by the summer of 1786, but they mostly ended up destitute on London's streets and were viewed as a social problem: a few years later, 400 of them were transported to Sierra Leone with their (often white) wives, but within two years all but 60 had died.Historical immigration (1875 to the modern day)
Russian Jews
England has had small Jewish communities for many centuries, subject to occasional explusions, but British Jews numbered fewer than 10,000 at the start of the 19th century. After 1881 Russian Jews suffered bitter persecutions, and British Jews led fund-raising to enable their Russian co-religionists to emigrate to the USA. However, out of some 2,000,000 who left Russia by 1914, around 120,000 settled permanently in Britain. One of the main concentrations was the same Spitalfields area where Huguenots had earlier congregated. Immigration was reduced by the 1905 Aliens Act and virtually curtailed by the 1914 Aliens Restriction Act.Empire & Commonwealth
During this period the British Empire covered most of the globe, at its peak over a third of the world's people lived under British rule. Both during this time, and following the granting of independence to most colonies after World War II, the vast majority of immigrants to the UK were from either current or former colonies, most notably those in the Caribbean and Indian subcontinent. These people filled a gap in the UK labour market for unskilled jobs and many people were specifically brought to the UK on ships such as the Empire Windrush.In 1962 the Commonwealth Immigration Act was passed by the UK government restricting the freedom of passage into the UK from other parts of the Commonwealth. By 1972 only holders of work permits, or people with parents or grandparents born in the UK could gain entry - effectively stemming primary immigration from Commonwealth countries.
The Ireland Act 1949 has the unusual status of recognising the Republic of Ireland but affirming that its citizens are not citizens of a foreign country. This was at a time when a republic was not allowed to be a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Second World War
From around 1936 to 1939, 'wealthier' German Jews made every attempt to immigrate to the United Kingdom and it is estimated that as many as 50,000 may have been successful. There were immigration caps on the number who could enter, and some were turned back or left behind. When the UK was forced to declare war on Germany however, migration between the countries ceased.Following the end of the Second World War, substantial groups of people from Soviet controlled territories settled in Britain, particularly Poles and Ukrainians. Numbers of former German prisoners of war also decided to remain in Britain after marrying local women. There was an influx of refugees from Hungary following the crushing of the 1956 Hungarian revolution.
Western Europeans
In the latter part of the century the number of immigrants from Europe increased, particularly as the expansion of the European Union meant that citizens of EU member states were now free to live and work without restriction in other member states.Contemporary immigration
Refugees and asylum seekers
Whilst the UK is a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention,Public Information - UK, Information and Briefings, UNHCR in the UK the intake of refugees and asylum seekers is currently a very controversial political issue; most of the mainstream political parties have espoused various policies in the hope of being perceived as being "tough on asylum" and the tabloid media frequently print headlines about an "immigration crisis". This is denounced by those opposed to tighter controls on immigration as disproportionate, often with the implicit or explicit allegation that all opposition to high levels of immigration is based on racism, and that other arguments used by their opponents, such as housing shortages and the general overcrowding of the United Kingdom, are no more than a screen for this underlying motivation.In February 2003 Prime Minister Tony Blair promised on television to reduce the number of asylum seekers by half by September (within 7 months),Blair's asylum gamble BBC News 7 February, 2003 apparently catching unawares the members of his own government with responsibility for immigration policy, David Blunkett the then Home Secretary called the promise an objective rather than a target.Ministers back down on asylum pledge BBC News 10 February, 2003 This objective was met according to official figures.Blair's asylum target met BBC News 27 November, 2003 Official figures for numbers of people claiming asylum in the UK were at a 13 year low by March 2006.UK asylum claims at '13-year low' BBC News 17 March 2006 Opponents of the government's policies on asylum seekers and refugees, such as Migration Watch UKMigration Watch Anti-immigration website in the UK and some newspapers are critical of the way official figures are calculated.
Economic migrants
Britain has a system in place whereby economically active migrants can secure visas to work in the country. A major political scandal occurred in early 2004 when a civil servant leaked official documents revealing that ministers had condoned abuses of the procedures for Romanian immigrants so that official figures would misrepresent the scale of the issue, and a minister, Beverley Hughes, was forced to resign.Economic migration by definition is migration for economic benefit. Economic migration can therefore include legal immigrants, illegal immigrants and asylum seekers, if the intent of the individual in migrating to the UK is for their economic benefit.
Managed migration is the term used for all legal work permits and visas and this accounts for a substantial percentage of overall immigration figures for the UK. This area of immigration is managed by Work Permits (UK), a department within the Home Office. Applications within the scope of Managed Migration are made at UK Embassies or Consulates or directly to Work Permits (UK), depending upon the type of visa or permit required.
At present there are a large number of visas and permits available for what is termed Managed Migration. These include the following:
Employer Sponsored Work Permits
There are two different Tiers of work permit available, depending upon whether or not the occupation is listed on the Skills Shortage List.Skills Shortage List This list is similar in concept to the Australian Occupations in Demand List, albeit not as comprehensive, listing only those occupations for which there is a serious shortage of suitable people in the UK. For occupations not on this Skills Shortage List, the employer will have to advertise the position and demonstrate that no suitable UK resident or EU workers can be found. Approvals for a work permit are usually based upon the suitability of the applicant to the role, by education and/or experience, and the role itself being such that difficulty is found obtaining the employee in the UK or EU.
HSMP - Highly Skilled Migrant Programme
This is an extremely popular visa, established in 2002, which allows a highly skilled migrant to enter the UK with the right to work without first having to find an offer of employment and without an employer needing to sponsor the visa. This is a points based system, with highly skilled migrant programme (HSMP) points HSMP points being awarded primarily for education, work experience and past earnings.
Working Holidays, Ancestry and Business related visas are also extremely popular.
The Future of Managed Migration in the UK
As of April 2006, changes to the current Managed Migration system have been proposed that would primarily create one Points Based Migration system for the UK.Points-Based System: Making Migration Work for Britain Immigration Home Page This is causing some considerable debate at present. As an example of this the Home Office,Working in the UK - Home conducted a consultation where employers stated that work experience was one of the most important factors and age one of the least important factors when hiring an employee. The suggested replacement for HSMP (Tier 1 in the new system) gives points for age and none for work experience. This points based system is yet to be finalised and it is thought likely that the new system will be introduced no earlier than mid-2007.
2001 Census
In 2005 the BBC published an analysis of data from the 2001 Census, revealing the number of people included in the census who were born outside the British Isles, where they live, and comparing this information against the 1991 Census. Of the total population increase of 2.2 million between the two censuses, 1.1 million was represented by people born abroad. 4,301,280 people (7.53% of the total population) were born abroad, although the census gives no indication of their immigration status or intended length of stay - many people, particularly the young, come to live in the UK for a few months or years before returning to their own country. The non-native-born population tends to be strongly attracted to London and the South East region - 1.7 million foreign-born live in London, representing 25% of the city's total population, although 52% of Wembley's population was born abroad.Migration between countries in the British Isles
=England
= Of 43.9 million English-born people still resident in Britain at the 2001 census, 42.9 million (98%) were still resident in England, 400,000 in Scotland, and 590,000 in Wales. At 97.88%, Seaham in County Durham has the highest proprtion of English-born residents; 69% of London's residents were born in England. 77% of the total population of Britain was born in England.=Northern Ireland
= Northern Ireland shares its history of emigration with the Republic. As of 2001, 295,380 people born in Northern Ireland were resident in Britain, 6.72% more than a decade earlier. Scotland is a particularly popular destination for migrating Northern Irish of both communities.=Republic of Ireland
= For centuries Irish people have sought work in Britain, and consequently many millions of British citizens have Irish heritage. Emigration from the Republic of Ireland to Britain has greatly reduced since the 1980s because of the Republic's economic boom which has made Ireland an immigrant-attracting nation and attracted many Irish citizens back to their homeland, but at the 2001 Census 498,850 people born in the Republic were resident in Britain - a decline of 97,433 over the previous decade, but still 0.87% of the population. The Irish-born population is largely concentrated on the major cities of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, Glasgow and Edinburgh.=Scotland
= Of 5.2 million Scottish-born people resident in Britain in 2001, 4.4 million (84%) lived in Scotland. 260,000 Scots now live in London or the South East of England, 108,000 in North West England. Wales has seen least inward migration, with only 24,000 resident Scots.=Wales
= About 2.8 million people born in Wales were resident in Britain at the 2001 census, 78% of them were still resident in Wales. Unlike for most migrant groups, London appears to have relatively little attraction for the Welsh, with most expatriate Welsh living in the English counties bordering Wales (Cheshire, Shropshire, etc.), and in South-West England where they form 2.36% of the population. Scotland and North-East England are the British regions with fewest Welsh-born residents.Expansion of the EU, 2004
With the expansion of the EU on 1 May 2004, the UK, Ireland and Sweden opened their labour markets to workers from the new entrant countries. This move was in contrast to the original 15 member states including Germany and France who have retained immigration controls for workers from the new entrant countries Barriers still exist in larger EU By Gavin Stamp BBC News, 1 May 2005.Concerns were raised (especially by the right-wing newspapers) that there would be a "flood of immigrants" from the poorer Eastern EU nations who would now have a right to live and work in the United Kingdom. The Labour government subsequently brought in legislation requiring that workers register upon entry to the country - the Workers Registration Scheme (WRS). The Worker Registration Scheme Home Office
In the five months from May to October 2004, 90,950 people registered under this scheme. The majority were Poles (56%), with Lithuanians (17%), Slovaks (10%), Latvians, Czechs, Hungarians and Estonians (all under 10%) also registering. However, around 45% of those registering were already resident in the UK, possibly having been working illegally prior to this. In June 2006 a review of the events of the previous two years concluded that the flood of immigrants had indeed happened, but without any of the predicted negative side effects. Poles make up 6% of the populations of Southampton and Crewe, 4% of Inverness, and 3% of Lancaster. Pole positions, Investigation into the influx of Polish immigrants into the UK: More4 News, 6 June 2006. Retrieved 7 June 2006.
Since May 2004 293,000 immigrants have applied for work permits under the WRS. UK had 'no idea' over EU migrants BBC News, 21 January 2006.
Illegal immigration
A Home Office estimate for illegal immigrants in the UK released in March 2005 is between 310,000 and 570,000. The thorny issue of illegal migrants BBC News, 17 May 2006.Migration Watch UK has criticised the Home Office figures for not including the UK-born dependent children of unauthorised migrants. This may have increased the numbers of unauthorised migrants by 15,000 - 85,000.The illegal Migrant Population in the UK Migration Watch UK, Briefing paper 9.15,Migration Trends. The numbers of unauthorised migrants may have increased since the effective date of the Home Office study (end of April 2001) a rise of between 190,000 and 218,000 due to unsuccessful applications for asylum. Migration Watch (UK) has estimated the unauthorised migrant population as between 515,000 and 870,000, with a mean 670,000 as of March 2005. In the past the UK government has stated that the figures Migration Watch (UK) produces should be treated with considerable caution. Immigration: Fact or hype? By Dominic Casciani, BBC News, 5 August, 2002.
Jack Dromey, Deputy General of the Transport and General Workers Union and Labour Party treasurer, suggested in May 2006 that there could be around 500,000 illegal workers. He called for a public debate on whether an amnesty should be considered. Amnesty call over illegal workers BBC News, 20 May, 2006. David Blunkett has suggested that this might be done once the identity card scheme is rolled out Blunkett: Immigration amnesty on cards epolitix.com, 14 June 2006.
Laws concerning immigration and naturalisation
- Aliens Act 1905
- Aliens Restriction Act 1914
- Aliens Act 1919
- Polish resettlement Act 1947
- British Nationalities Act 1948
- Commonwealth Immigration Act 1962
- Immigration Act 1971
- British Nationality Act 1981
- Carriers' Liability Act 1987
- Dublin Convention 1990
- Immigration and Asylum Appeals Act 1993
- Asylum and Immigration Act 1996
- Immigration and Asylum Act 1999
- British Overseas Territories Act 2002
- Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002
- Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants, etc.) Act 2004
Impact of immigration on society and culture
Up until 1948 the population of the United Kingdom was predominantly indigenous, with small immigrant communities and ethnic groups descended from immigrants from elsewhere in Europe, such as Jewish people, and small communities of people descended from non-European people, such as the Chinese comunity in Limehouse. These non-indigenous groups were mostly concentrated in the major cities, especially in London, and, although members of these groups contributed much to British history, their numbers were generally small enough that they had little direct impact on the lives of ordinary people in wider society. Since 1948, however, immigration from the Commonwealth, particularly from the Indian subcontinent and the West Indies, has made urban Britain much more ethnically and racially diverse than ever before.
With Britain's economy booming in the post-War period, large numbers of immigrants were recruited to work in a variety of working-class fields - particularly in manufacturing, construction, and transport. Although initially the assumption was that many of these immigrants would return 'home' after a period, in the end most of the initial generation ended up settling permanently in Britain. For the most part, there were no explicit government plans as to how the matter of assimilating the members of the immigrant communities into wider society would be achieved, with varying results from quite good inter-ethnic relations and high degrees of personal interaction in some areas (particularly parts of London) to segregation and ghettoization (seen particularly strongly in many former textile towns in Northern England, such as Bradford).
More recently, parts of urban Britain have witnessed the arrival of the American phenomenon of white flight, where whites move out of inner-city or even whole metropolitan areas as the non-white population grows. In Britain, in contrast to America where the term generally refers to whites abandoning areas as they become more African American, this phenomenon has been most pronounced in areas with fast growing Asian Muslim populations. These communities, with origins in Pakistan and Bangladesh, have been, generally speaking, the most tenacious in holding on to their languages, religion, dress, and internal cohesion of any of Britain's recent migrant groups. The perceived resultant culture clash has been capitalised upon by the ultra-nationalist British National Party, who have seen a growth in support over the last 15 years amongst the white population. The BNP tactic of highlighting a feeling of isolation amongst white voters and higlighting division, not similarity, between communities started in the early 90's, and led to the election of Derek Beacon as a BNP councillor, in the Isle of Dogs by election.
The Office for National Statistics shows a 50% increase in the size of the ethnic minority population between the censuses of 1991 and 2001.The Office of National Statistics, Population Size by Ethnicity, 2001 census According to the 2001 census, 7.9% of the UK's population is non-white, which breaks down further to 4% British Asian, 2% Black British, 1.2% Mixed, 0.4% British Chinese and 0.4% from other groups. These rapid demographic changes have played a strong role in the increasing controversy in Britain in recent years over issues of multiculturalism, immigration, and political correctness. Unlike former British colonies such as Australia, the United States, and Canada, Britain has no tradition of mass immigration, with the result that recent demographic shifts have sparked a variety of responses from the indigenous population, with some whole-heartedly 'embracing diversity' while others decry what they see as 'reverse colonisation' and many more adopting positions somewhere in the middle.
Over the past 60 years race relations have varied from peaceful co-existence to "race riots", such as the 1981 riots in heavily Afro-Caribbean neighbourhoods like Brixton in London and Handsworth in Birmingham. Events such as these, as well as more recent events like the July 2005 London bombings, have provoked debate on the question of multiculturalism as policy in Britain.
Unlike neighbouring France, British government policy and discourse has tended to emphasise integration and cultural adaptation. Former foreign secretary, Robin Cook stated that Chicken Tikka Massala is now a true British national dish illustrating the way Britain absorbs and adapts external influences. Chicken Tikka is an Indian dish. The Massala sauce was added to satisfy the desire of British people to have their meat served in gravy. Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech By Robin Cook, Guardian Unlimited, 19 April, 2001. As Britain industrialised early, much of the population lost touch with traditional British cuisine. This has been one of the factors behind its readiness to absorb culinary ideas from all over the world, including Italian, Chinese and Indian cuisines as well as more recent trends such as Thai.
Other high-profile areas such as entertainment and sport are also very inclusive. Many leading broadcasters and scientists are from black and minority ethnic backgrounds. In music, the impact of black culture has been extensive. British music has been transormed from its rather staid 1950's image to a vibrant and colourful mix in 2006.
Though the influence has less to do with immigration in this country, the greatest musical influence being from the USA and its hugely successful r'n'b/rap industry.
References
Further reading
- Mote, Ashley, M.E.P., Overcrowded Britain - Our Immigration Crisis Exposed, Hampshire, U.K., 2003, ISBN 09540124-1-0
- Moxon, Steve, The Great Immigration Scandal Exeter, U.K., 2004, ISBN 1-84540-011-9
See also
- Becoming a UK citizen
- British nationality law
- British national identity card
- Britishness test
- Asylum and Immigration Tribunal
- British Afro-Caribbean community
- British Asian
- British Chinese
- Greeks in Great Britain
- UK topics
- Immigration and Nationality Directorate
- Rivers of Blood speech
- Migrant literature
External links
- Immigration & Nationality Directorate at the Home Office
- Moving Here, the UK's biggest online database of digitised photographs, maps, objects, documents and audio items from 30 local and national archives, museums and libraries which record migration experiences of the last 200 years.
- Refugee Council, the largest organisation in the UK working with asylum seekers and refugees.
- Barbed Wire - Network to End Migrant and Refugee Detention
- BBC News Special: Destination UK
- Born Abroad: An Immigration Map of Britain (BBC, 2005)
- Article on British genetic makeup
- History of Chinese immigration to Britain
- Migration Watch - Independent think tank
Demographics of the United Kingdom | Great migrations | History of the United Kingdom | Immigration by country | Immigration to the United Kingdom
"Immigration to the United Kingdom"