Imjin War

Imjin War
Korean Name
Hangul:	임진왜란
Hanja:	壬辰倭亂
Revised Romanization:	Imjin Waeran
McCune-Reischauer:	Imchin Waeran
Japanese Name
Japanese:	文禄・慶長の役
Hepburn Romaji:	Bunroku/Keichō no Eki
Chinese Name
Traditional Chinese:	壬辰衛國戰爭
Simplified Chinese:	壬辰卫国战争
Hanyu Pinyin:	Rénchén Wèi Guó Zhànzhēng

The Imjin War (1592 – 1598) consisted of two successive failed Japanese invasions of Korea, with the professed aim of conquering China – the "Imjin Waeran" or "Bunroku Campaign" (文禄の役) between 1592 and 1593, and the "Jung-yu Jaeran" (정유재란; 丁酉再亂) or "Keichō Campaign" (慶長の役) between 1597 and 1598. In both campaigns, the invasions were repelled by the allied forces of Korea and China. Although victorious against the invading Japanese, Korea suffered great loss of life, looting of cultural artifacts, and significant damage to its economy.

Before the War

Korea

Prior to the war, the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had presided over a considerably harmonious reign of 200 years ever since the coup that overthrew its predecessor, the Goryeo Dynasty (918 - 1392). However, there were occasions of armed conflict during this period; many Jurchen raids had occurred on the northern border of Korea (ended by the extension of the Korean border to the Tumen River), and Koreans were also wary of attacks by the Japanese Wokou on Korea's ports and coastal villages (a particularly severe incident in 1418 resulted in devastating Korean retaliation brought about during the rule of King Sejong the Great through the invasion of Tsushima Island and the rout of the Japanese pirate fleet there). Despite these attacks and subsequent counterattacks, Korea was a relatively peaceful country.

Preceding the Japanese invasion, Korea had also maintained a powerful and mutually beneficial alliance with the Ming Dynasty of China. Although the various entities on the continent had been main enemies during the existence of the Yuan and Liao dynasties during the Goryeo period and the reign of the Sui and Tang dynasties during the Three Kingdoms period, the Ming Dynasty during the early Joseon period looked to peaceful relations with Korea. Sharing Confucian ideals, a common enemy (the Jurchens), and mutually profitable commerce between the countries led to the alliance. Although Korea and Japan were key partners in terms of commercial trade, and Korea was a main conduit through which Chinese culture reached Japan, Koreans were wary of Japanese on the main islands. Koreans were rather more trusting toward the Ryukyu Kingdom in the southwest of the Japanese Archipelago.

Yi I (1536-1584), then a scholar and influential philosopher, advised that Korea should train a well equipped army of at least 100,000 soldiers. A weak Korean performance in 1582 against the Jurchens showed that the Korean army was not trained properly. Unfortunately, King Seonjo and most of his advisers heeded no attention.

Ryu Sung-Ryong (류성룡), who would become Prime Minister, voiced cogently the need to strengthen the military, for he feared an invasion by Japan. He believed that all men, regardless of their social status (including slaves), should be coerced to take part in the military training that was compulsory for most commoners. Yu also argued for the repair of castles and fortresses that were either abandoned or likely to be of little use during a crisis. Unfortunately, nearly all the advisers of the court opposed the building projects because it required forced labor and money.

Yu also wanted to reorganize the military because he believed that there were too many unknowledgeable generals, and felt the need for strong leadership. He exhorted the need to adopt more advanced arquebuses, and implementing better armor even in the infantry. In the end, his arguments were dismissed by King Seonjo.

Japan

Toyotomi Hideyoshi established his hegemony over the warring states in Japan in the latter part of the 16th century. Hideyoshi united all the states and brought Japan to a brief period of peace. Motivated in part by a need to satisfy the perpetual hunger for territory by his vassals and find employment for restive samurai, he began to plan for the conquest of Ming Dynasty China. He revealed his plan first to Mori Terumoto in 1586, and pursued the plan after he defeated the clans of Shimazu and Hojo. Thousands of troops were mobilized and trained; weapons, and supplies were gathered; and hundreds of arquebuses were imported from Portugal. Hideyoshi failed to hire two Portuguese galleons to join the invasion; therefore, hundreds of ships were built to carry the entire Japanese army across the sea.

Several times, Hideyoshi sent ambassadors to request the Joseon court to allow his troops to move through the Korean peninsula to China. His first request was ignored, and the second request was snubbed after King Seonjo sent envoys to Hideyoshi's government and determined from their observations that Hideyoshi posed no threat. After the denial of his second request, Hideyoshi launched his armies against Korea in 1592. There were those who opposed Hideyoshi's plan, such as Tokugawa Ieyasu, and Konishi Yukinaga and So Yoshitoshi were among those who tried to arbitrate between Hideyoshi and the Joseon court.

Comparison of Korean and Japanese Armies

The Korean military in general was in need of many reforms due to the unnecessarily large command bureaucracy. The armies were poorly equipped with rusted weaponry, and most of the officers were incompetent in building strategies due to inexperience and ‘table-warfare’ ideologies.

Presumably the main reason why the Koreans were so unsuccessful in the early stage of the war was the Japanese implementation of arquebuses from Portugal. Japan had opened her market for a time to the West to adopt European science and technology. When Japan first acquired the arquebuses, they were fascinated and immediately began manufacturing them. On the other hand, Korea disassociated herself from foreigners with the exception of Ming China. The Koreans did use fire arrows launched from hand guns, but generals and captains put the emphasis on archery. In fact, Korean bows were highly advanced compared to those of others: the range of the Korean arrows was 460 meters compared to the Japanese range of 320 meters.

Korean archers lost against Japanese arquebuses primarily because the range of the arquebus was longer. Although the reload time with bows was faster, training soldiers to become skilled archers was arduous and repetitive. Arquebuses were also less inaccurate, but Japanese commanders believed that a heavy volley would be accurate enough. Another reason was that the Koreans were not aware of arquebuses and most of them never experienced guns nor were trained to combat them. In the opening battles of the Imjin War, Koreans were shocked at the sudden, loud noises of the guns. Generals, on their part, were not accustomed to guns and could not strategize their battle plans to counter the arquebuses.

Another huge disadvantage for the Korean soldiers was their lack of armor. Although Korean troops were equipped with iron and lamellar armor during the Goryeo Dynasty, its usage declined by the mid-16th century. Koreans saw no need for the armour because of their considerable quantity and sophistication in projectile weapons, which they thought made face-to-face combat less likely, and hence armor less necessary. Although the government made wearing armor mandatory for all ranks, only the officers and generals complied. Most soldiers hesitated in wearing armor because it was too heavy and proved inconvenient.

The navy was the main military division in which Korea excelled. The Korean navy was made up of Panokseons that were much stronger than the Japanese ships, which were hastily mobilized solely for the purpose of transportation. Unlike the armor, the navy was not neglected, due to a constant need to protect the sea from Japanese pirates. Each Panokseon had 32 large cannons and multiple Hwachas, and had superior firepower and range to the Japanese ships. These two advantages were used in addition to the manipulation of the environment by Admiral Yi in the Battle of Noryang Point, and other battles, to destroy much of the Japanese fleet before engaging in mêlée combat.

Korean ships were overall very sturdy and, although somewhat slower than Japanese attack vessels, had great power in their cannon. Japanese ships, on the other hand, were too weak to support the recoil of cannon. Also, Korean ships were built with wooden pegs while Japanese ships were built with iron nails. Unfortunately, iron nails rusted and made Japanese ships' hulls weak.

Also, Korean cannon surpassed those of the Japanese in firepower and range. Ironically, while Korea had nearly no arquebuses, Korean soldiers had a wide selection of cannons at their disposal. Cannons were first developed in the 1400s under King Sejong (1418-1450). Cannon were mainly used on battleships and castles but weren't very mobile and were unwieldy to use on the battlefield. Koreans used grenades and mortars from cannon as well, which were most effective in tight areas. Mortars were usually lobbed onto enemy ships.

It is quite likely that the only Korean general who had predicted the inevitable Japanese invasion and prepared for the war was Yi Sun-sin. Yi had become the Commander of Jeolla Left Naval Station in Yeosu. Yi began to build more warships and designed the Turtle Ship, which would become critical in securing important naval victories.

The Japanese military was carefully organized and the soldiers of different professions were well distributed among the armies. The Korean military, on the other hand, was not only disorganized, but inexperienced as well. It was Yu Song-nyong who pointed out that Korean armies tended to move forward in one body while Japanese armies moved in complex patterns of companies.

The First Invasion

Initial Landing

The invasion began when Japanese forces of the First and Second Divisions, under Konishi Yukinaga and Kato Kiyomasa landed on Busan and Tadaejin (다대진) concurrently on May 23, 1592 with 150,000 soldiers.The University Record, February 22, 1999. Imjin War diaries are memorial of invasions for Koreans Chong Pal, the general leading the Koreans in the Busan castle, repelled the Japanese heroically, but the morale crumbled when he died of a bullet and Busan fell.

Tadaejin, another port, was attacked by the Second Division. The overall strength of the castle walls was too weak to resist the Japanese and Tadaejin fell in a couple of hours.

It is interesting to note that the attacks on Busan and Tadaejin began nearly at the same time.

Battle of Sangju

Main article: Battle of Sangju

From there the First Division (under Konishi Yukinaga) with 25,000 men marched quickly north to Sangju where they claimed a quick victory. Then they crossed Choryang Pass, which was a major strategic point that the Koreans neglected to guard. The failure to defend Choryang Pass would lead to the capture of Hanyang (present-day Seoul).

Battle of Chungju

Main article: Battle of Chungju

Konishi soon reached Chungju defended by a cavalry division under the command of Sin Lip. The newly recruited cavalry division of 8,000, having been outnumbered and limited to melee weapons, was overwhelmed by 19,000 Japanese soldiers equipped with arquebuses. The Battle of Chungju marked the last defense line to Hanyang, and the Japanese forces journeyed north without much complication.

Upon hearing of General Sin Lip's defeat, the Yi court took flight toward Pyongyang. In Kaesong, the Korean commoners mourned bitterly because they believed that their king was abandoning them. The Yi court would eventually travel as far as the very northern states of Korea, and the prince would be sent with other ambassadors to ask the Ming Emperor for military aid.

Meanwhile, the Second Divison of 23,000 men under Kato Kiyomasa captured Gyeongju, the former capital of Korea during the Silla Dynasty, and massive looting and burning took place. A series of minor battles between the Koreans and Japanese led Kato to Chuksan, and eventually Seoul in a month.

Capture of Hanseong

Chungju was the last line of defense for the Koreans and the road to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) was open to the Japanese. Both Generals Kato and Konishi vied to earn the honor of reaching Hanseong first, and the Third Division under Kuroda Nagasama was not far behind. In the end, Konishi managed to arrive near Hanseong first, and planned to attack the East Gate.

To their surprise, the city was left undefended and was found burned and destroyed. King Seonjo had already fled to Pyongyang. The Korean soldiers burned the city as ordered.

Siege of Jinju

Main article Siege of Jinju (1592)

Jinju (진주) was a large castle that defended Jeolla Province. The Japanese commanders knew that control of Jinju would mean the fall of Jeolla. Therefore, a large army under Hosokawa Tadaoki gleefully approached Jinju. Jinju was defended by Kim Shi-min (김시민), one of the better generals in Korea, commanded a Korean garrison of 3,000 men. Kim had recently acquired about 200 new arquebuses that were equal in strength to the Japanese guns. With the help of arquebuses, cannon, and mortars, Kim and the Koreans were able to drive back the Japanese from Jeolla Province. Hosokawa lost over 30,000 men. The battle at Jinju is considered one of the greatest victories of Korea because it prevented the Japanese from entering Jeolla.

In 1593, Jinju would fall to the Japanese.

Japanese Northern Campaign

(See also Kato Kiyomasa's campaign in the North-Eastern part of Korea)

Japanese troops ravaged and looted many key towns in the southern part of Korea, took Pyongyang and advanced as far north as the Yalu and Tumen rivers. By 1593, Konishi was already planning to invade China.

Of the Second Division, Kato Kiyomasa was still unhappy because of Konishi's glory from the capture of Seoul. Kato planned to invade Hamgyong province in northern Korea and begin his China campaign. With an army of 20,000 men, Kato advanced north, capturing every single castle he arrived at. This included all the castles along Korea's eastern border.

Kato's first real resistance was at Haejungchang. Kato met Northern Korean Contingents, who were renowned as elites among the Korean army. Korean cavalry charged the field and smashed Kato's army as a whole. Surprised, Kato fell back to Haejungchang, a rice storage, built cover from rice pouches and waited for the attack to stop. Feeling confident about the first victory, the Korean commander ordered the cavalry to charge and harass the enemy under cover. Kato replied by heavy arquebus fire behind a 'rice wall' and forced the Koreans back to a nearby hill. After nightfall, Kato silently led his troops to the foot of the hill. He then ordered an attack from three sides and destroyed the Korean army as a whole.

This would be the last Korean resistance to his advance into northeastern China.

Kato then marched toward northeastern China, leaving the coast, and after the Battle of Songjin, captured two Korean princes who were sent down south with an escort of 1,000 Japanese soldiers as a negotiation condition. After crossing the Tumen River, Kato arrived in northeastern China, where Chinese authority did not reach and Jurchens ruled. Here Kato attacked a Jurchen fortress and took it by heavy arquebus fire. The next day Jurchens retaliated against the Japanese with 10,000 strong troops. The Japanese were practically surrounded by the Jurchen cavalry and while managing to pull out of Jurchen attacks, Kato quickly retreated back across the Tumen River. This would be the first and last time Kato and the Japanese ever stepped outside Korea during the war. It is interesting to note that Japan never reached China - their political goal - after this.

The Naval Victories of Yi Sun-Shin

Battles are listed at the end of the article

While the Koreans were struggling on land, Admiral Yi was preparing for battle against the Japanese ships docked in Busan.

While the Japanese army were greatly successful on land, in June, 1592, a small Korean fleet commanded by Yi Sun-shin destroyed several Japanese flotillas and wrought havoc on Japanese logistics in the Battle of Okpo, Dangpo Battle, and Battle of Sacheon (1592). During the Battle of Sacheon, the Korean iron-roofed Geobukseon, or turtle ships, were introduced. After another Korean victory at the Battle of Tanghangpo, Japanese generals at Busan began to panic, fearing that their supply lines would be destroyed, so therefore the Japanese naval generals decided to kill Admiral Yi before his threat to Japanese supply ships would grow bigger. Therefore, the Japanese commanders sent Wakizaka Yasuharu, a prominent general, to destroy Admiral Yi's fleet.

At the Battle of Hansando, 1592, Admiral Yi proved again to be an awesome strategist. Wakizaka Yasuharu was reported to be seen with a very large Japanese fleet sailing down the Straits of Kyonnaeryang by local fishermen and scouts. Admiral Yi was reluctant to attack the Japanese in the narrow strait, for fear of his Panoksons performing badly in a tight spot. He also did not want the Japanese to escape onto land, where there would be a high chance of a revenge raid on a Korean village.

Therefore, Admiral Yi sent a few ships to lure the Japanese out of the strait into the Bay of Hansando. He had rehearsed this kind of operation many times before and soon, a burst of Japanese ships swarmed into the bay, Admiral Yi was waiting, and used his famous crane-wing formation to envelop the Japanese ships and massacre them. Not leaving any chance for the Japanese to board the Korean ships, Admiral Yi ordered the continuous fire of cannons. Not only at the Battle of Hansando, Admiral Yi won battles again and again.

In September, 1592, Admiral Yi dared to attack Busan, where the Japanese placed their navy headquarters. Yi managed to leave with all of his ships intact, while inflicting damage on several hundred enemy ships still in their docks.

Needless to say, the Japanese lost control of the Korea Strait after these naval defeats, and their activities were largely limited around Busan until the Battle of Chilchonryang in 1597. Without the continuous supplies coming from Busan, the Japanese army lost their initial advantage and could not proceed any further from Pyongyang.

It is to Admiral Yi's credit that his operations prevented the occupation of Korea by Japanese forces, and concluded the war with a Korean victory.

Korean Irregular Army

Korean civilians and Buddhist monks soon gathered to form irregular armies. The irregulars' main jobs were to harass Japanese communication lines, ambush armies, kill Japanese commanders, and provide reinforcements. Korean irregulars operated during the entire duration of the war.

An interesting thing to note is the participation of Buddhist monks who were only seen in mountains since the overthrow of the Goryeo dynasty. Buddhist monks proved to be great leaders and excelled at fighting. Insurgency resistance was especially strong in the southern provinces of Chungcheong, Jeolla and Gyeongsang. Gwak Jae-woo (곽재우; 郭再祐), Jo Heon (조헌), Kim Cheon-il (김전일), Go Kyung-myung (고경명), and Jeong In-hong (정인홍) were among the notable insurgency leaders.

Gwak Jae-u is one of the most celebrated heroes of the Seven Year War. He was originally a landowner in Gyeongsang province, but the urgency of the war caused him to begin gathering volunteers to fight the Japanese. Gwak Jae-u's first attack was on Japanese supply boats that transported supplies up and down on the Nam River. In popular depiction, Gwak Jae-u is wearing an all-red tunic, claiming that the tunic was stained with the blood of Korean innocents slaughtered by the Japanese.

In the north, insurgency leader Jeong Mun-bu (정문부) fought against Kato Kiyomasa, and defeated the Japanese at the northernmost point in Korea. One of his most decisive victories was the battle of Gilju, which forced Kato's army into retreat. The whole of his campaign was carved into a stone memorial after the war. Many Buddhist monks also rose up against the Japanese. While the official army was being easily overrun by the Japanese army, the hit-and-run tactics of the irregular army was actually the biggest threat for the invaders.

Battle of Haengju

Main article Battle of Haengju

The Japanese invasion into Jeolla province was broken down and pushed back by Gwon Yul, a respected general at the hills of Ichiryeong, where outnumbered Koreans fought overwhelming Japanese troops and gained victory. Gwon Yul quickly advanced northwards, re-taking Suwon and then swung south toward Heangju where he would wait for the Chinese reinforcements. After he got the message that the Koreans were destroyed at Pyokje, Gwon Yul decided to fortify Haengju.

Bolstered by the victory at Pyokje, Kato and his army of 30,000 men advanced to the south of Hanseong to attack Haengju Fortress, an impressive mountain fortress that overlooked the surrounding area. An army of 3,800 led by Gwon Yul was garrisoned at the fortress waiting for the Japanese. Kato believed his overwhelming army would destroy the Koreans and therefore ordered the Japanese soldiers to advance upon the steep slopes of Haengju with little apparent plan. Gwon Yul answered the Japanese with fierce fire from the fortification using Hwachas, rocks, handguns, bows, and even quicklimes were thrown at the Japanese. But Kato stubbornly ordered his men up. The Japanese eventually forced the Koreans to the second line of defense, but they pushed no further. After nine massive assaults and 10,000 casualties, Kato burned his dead and finally pulled his troops back.

The Battle of Haengju was an important victory for the Koreans, and celebrated as one of the three most decisive Korean victories; Battle of Haengju, Siege of Jinju (1592), and Battle of Hansando.

Today, the site of Haengju fortress has a memorial built to honor Gwon Yul.

Intervention of Ming China

China sent land and naval forces to Korea in both the first and second invasions to assist in defeating the Japanese. Chinese credit goes largely to assisting Korean reorganization of the military after the war.

After the fall of Pyongyang, King Seonjo retreated to Ming China. In July, the Ming Dynasty Emperor Wanli and his advisers did not take the threat of the Japanese lightly and soon, responding to Korean King Seonjo's request for aid, sent a relatively small force of 5,000 soldiers to help.

Hideyoshi, having suffering numerous setbacks, including logistical problems caused by Korean saboteurs and major naval defeats at the hands of the Korean navy, proposed to China the division of Korea: the north as a self-governing Chinese satellite, and the south to remain in Japanese hands. The peace talks were mostly carried out by Konishi Yukinaga, who did most of the fighting against the Chinese. The offer was promptly rejected. This negotiation was, of course, done out of sight of the Korean Royal Court.

Having seen the forces they had sent to Korea wiped out, the Ming Emperor sent a much larger force in January 1593 under the two famous Generals Song Yingchang and Li Rusong. The salvage army had a prescribed strength of 100,000, made up of 42,000 from five northern military districts and a contingent of 3,000 soldiers proficient in the use of firearms from South China. The Ming army was also well armed with artillery pieces.

In February 1593 a large combined force of Chinese and Korean soldiers attacked Pyongyang and drove the Japanese into eastward retreat. Li Rusong personally led a pursuit with over 20,000 strong troops, along with a small force of Koreans, but was halted near Pyokje by the sally of a large Japanese formation.

In late February, Li ordered a raid into the Japanese rear and burned several hundred thousand koku of military rice supply, forcing the Japanese invading army to retreat from Seoul due to the prospect of food shortage.

These engagements ended the first phase of the war, and peace negotiations followed. The Japanese evacuated Hanseong in May and retreated to fortifications around Busan. Some Japanese soldiers left the army and settled down in Korea, even marrying Korean women. The ensuing truce was to last for close to four years.

Treaty negotiations

By May 18, 1593, all the Japanese soldiers retreated back to Japan. In the summer of 1593, a Chinese delegation visited Japan and stayed at the court of Hideyoshi for more than a month. The Ming government withdrew most of its expeditionary force, but kept 16,000 men on the Korean peninsula to guard the truce.

An envoy from Hideyoshi reached Beijing in 1594. Most of the Japanese army had left Korea by autumn 1596; a small garrison was nevertheless left in Busan. Satisfied with the Japanese overtures, the imperial court in Beijing dispatched an embassy to allow retired Regent (Taikō (太閤)) Hideyoshi to have the title of "King of Japan" on condition of complete withdrawal of Japanese forces from Korea.

The Ming ambassador met Hideyoshi in October 1596 but there was a great deal of misunderstanding about the context of the meeting. Hideyoshi was enraged to learn that China insulted the Emperor of Japan by presuming to cancel the Emperor's divine right to the throne, offering to recognize Hideyoshi instead. To insult the Chinese, he demanded among other things, a royal marriage with the Wanli Emperor's daughter, the delivery of a Korean prince as hostage, and four of Korea's southern provinces.

Peace negotiations soon broke down and the war entered its second phase when Hideyoshi sent another invasion force. Early in 1597, both sides resumed hostilities.

The Second Invasion

Hideyoshi was unsatisfied with the first campaign, and decided to push his luck with another surprisal – only this time, China was out of his reach. Soon after the Chinese ambassadors returned safely to China, in 1597, Hideyoshi sent 200 ships with 141,500 troops브리태니커백과사전. 정유재란 (丁酉再亂) under the command of Todo Takadora and Kato Yoshiaki. Upon hearing this news, the imperial court in Beijing appointed Yan Hao (楊鎬) as the supreme commander of an initial mobilization of 55,000 troops from various provinces across China, such as Sichuan, Zhejiang, Huguang, Fujian, and Guangdong. A naval force of 21,000 was included in the effort. Rei Huang, a Chinese historian, estimated that the combined strength of the Chinese army and navy at the height of the second campaign was around 75,000. Korean forces totaled 30,000 with General Gwon Yul's army in Gong Mountain (공산; 公山) in Daegu, General Kwon Eung's (권응) troops in Gyeongju, General Gwak Jae-u's soldiers in Changnyung (창녕), Yi Bok-nam’s (이복남) army in Naju, and Yi Si-yun's troops in Choong Poong-ryung.

Initial Offensive

The Japanese planned to attack Jeolla Province in the southwestern part of the peninsula, and eventually occupy Jeonju, the provincial capital. Korean success in the Siege of Jinju in 1592 had saved this area from further devastation during the first invasion. But this time, Japanese commanders wanted to capture this area. Two Japanese armies, under Mori Hidemoto and Ukita Hideie, began the assault in Busan and marched towards Jeonju, taking Sacheon and Changpyong along the way.

The overall objective of the Japanese changed as well: annexing Korea was their only objective.

Siege of Namwon

Main article Siege of Namwon

Namwon was located 30 miles southeast from Chonju. It was the largest fortress in Jeolla Province, and a coalition force of 6,000 soldiers (including 3,000 Chinese) and civilian volunteers were readied to fight the approaching Japanese forces. The Japanese laid siege to the walls of the fortress with ladders and siege towers. The two sides exchanged volleys of arquebuses and bows. Eventually the Japanese forces scaled the walls and sacked the fotress. The Siege of Namwon resulted in 4,000 casualties to the Korean and Chinese forces. The entire Jeolla Province fell under the Japanese control.

Battle of Hwangsoksan

Main article Battle of Hwangsoksan

Hwangsoksan Fortress consisted of extensive walls that circumscribed the Hwangsok mountain, and garrisoned thousands of soldiers led by the guerilla leader Gwak Jae-u. When Kato Kiyomasa laid siege on the mountain with a colossal army, the Koreans lost morale and retreated with 350 casualties.

Korean Naval Operations in 1597

The Korean navy played a crucial part in the second invasion, as well as the first. The Japanese advances were halted due to the lack of reinforcements and supplies, as the frequent naval victories of the allied forces prevented the Japanese from accessing the tributaries on the western side of the Korean peninsula. Also, China sent a large number of Chinese fleets to aid the Koreans. This made the Korean navy an even bigger threat to the Japanese, since they had to fight a larger enemy fleet.

The war at sea took off on a bad start when Won Gyun took Admiral Yi's place as commander.

Because Admiral Yi, the commander of the Korean navy, was so able in naval warfare, the Japanese plotted to demote him by making use of the laws that governed the Korean military. A Japanese double agent working for the Koreans falsely reported that Japanese General Kato Kiyomasa would be coming on a certain date with great Japanese fleet on another attack on Korean shores, and insisted that Admiral Yi be sent to lay an ambush.

Knowing that the area had sunken rocks detrimental for the ships, Admiral Yi refused, and for refusing instruction from higher command he was demoted and jailed by King Seonjo. Added to that, Admiral Won Gyun accused Admiral Yi for drinking and idling. Won Gyun was quickly put in Admiral Yi's place. Won Gyun's place of Admiral Yi would soon bring the destruction of the Korean navy at Chilchonryang.

Battle of Chilchonryang

On August 28, 1597, a Japanese fleet engaged the entire Korean navy at Chilchonryang strait, and the battle resulted in 157 sunken Korean ships and 20,000 casualties. Won Gyun and his remaining army were killed after he struggled ashore to a Japanese fort. Only 13 Korean warships survived the battle and retreated to Yosu. The area around the Korea Strait was then under the Japanese control.

Battle of Myeongnyang

Main article Battle of Myeongnyang

After the debacle in Chilchonryang, King Seonjo reinstated Admiral Yi. Yi quickly re-organized the navy now reduced to 13 ships and 200 men, and, on September 16, 1597, he led the Korean fleet against a Japanese fleet of 333 in the Myeongnyang Strait. The naval Battle of Myeongnyang resulted in Korean victory with at least 123 Japanese vessels sunk, and the Japanese were forced to return to Pusan. Admiral Yi won back the control of the Korean shores.

Siege of Ulsan

Main article: Siege of Ulsan

By late 1597, Japanese forces were very near Hansung (present-day Seoul), and behind them was a trail of devastation. They defeated the Korean forces at Chiksan and Sangju, and laid siege on Gyeongju. After the news of the loss at Myeongnyang, Japanese commanders decided to destroy Gyeongju completely. Already having been sacked and looted in the first invasion, the city was burnt down by the Japanese soldiers in a revengeful raid. The Japanese retreated south to Ulsan.

Yet Admiral Yi's control of the areas over the Korea Strait permitted no supply ships to reach the western side of the Korean peninsula, into which many extensive tributaries merge. Without provisions and reinforcements, the Japanese forces had to remain in the coastal fortresses that they still controlled. To gain advantage of the situation, the Chinese and Korean coalition forces attacked Ulsan, a major Japanese stronghold. This siege was the first major offensive from the Chinese and Korean forces in the second phase of the war.

A river around the fortress in Ulsan prevented the allied forces from laying siege on the fortress from all sides. A total of around 36,000 with the help of singijeons and hwachas nearly succeeded in sacking the fortress, but reinforcements under Kato Kiyomasa came across the river to aid their allies and prolonged the siege. Later, Japanese were running out of food and the victory was imminent for the allied forces, but another Japanese reinforcement arrived from the rear of the Chinese and Korean troops and forced them to retreat.

Battle of Sacheon

Main article Battle of Sacheon (1598)

During the winter of 1597, the Chinese and Korean allies repelled the Japanese forces from reaching Hansung (present-day Seoul). Now there was no hope for the Japanese to conquer the Korean peninsula; therefore, Japanese forces began to prepare to retreat. From the beginning of spring in 1598, the Korean forces and 100,000 Chinese soldiers prepared to retake castles on the coastal areas. The Wanli Emperor of China sent a fleet under the artillery expert Chen Lin in May 1598; this naval force saw action in joint exercises with the Koreans against the Japanese navy. And in June 1598, under Commander Konishi Yukinage's warning of the dire situations in the campaign, withdrew 70,000 troops and left 60,000 -mostly Satsuma warriors under Shimazu clan commanders. The remaining Japanese forces fought desperately, turning back Chinese attacks on Suncheon and Sacheon as the Ming army amassed more troops to prepare for a final assault.

The Chinese believed that Sacheon was crucial in their program to retake the lost castles. Although the Chinese were ascendant initially, the tide of the battle turned when Japanese reinforcements attacked the rear of the Chinese army and the Japanese soldiers inside the fortress counter-attacked through the gates. The Chinese forces retreated with 30,000 losses.

Death of Hideyoshi

On 18 September 1598, Hideyoshi died, and the council of five regents immediately decided to withdraw the remaining Japanese army from imminent destruction. The council was clandestine about Hideyoshi's death because they feared that, upon hearing the news, the Japanese soldiers' morale would plummet even more and panic. The decree for withdrawal was sent to the Japanese commanders late in October.

Battle of Noryang Point

Main article Battle of Noryang Point

Noryang Point was the final naval battle in the war. The Korean navy under Admiral Yi had recovered from its losses and was aided by the Chinese navy under Chen Lin. Intelligence revealed that 500 Japanese ships were anchored in the narrow straits of Noryang in order to withdraw the remaining Japanese troops. Noting the narrow geography of the area, Admiral Yi and the Chen Lin led a surprise attack against the Japanese fleet at dawn on December 16, 1598.

The allied fleet fired volleys of cannons and fire arrows against the resting Japanese fleet. The Japanese fleet hurriedly prepared and sailed toward the allied fleet through the strait. It suffered much devastation from the bombardments as the ships became concentrated into bundles, due to narrowness of the strait. As mentioned above, Japanese cannon technology was far more inferior to that of the Korean and Chinese; therefore, they could not return any fire.

As the Japanese ships became nearer, Chen Lin ordered the Chinese fleet to engage in melee combat. Fierce battle ensued and the Japanese began to suffer when Admiral Yi's fleet began to send mortars into their ships. When General Chen Lin's flagship was threatened, Admiral Yi came to aid with his ship. By dawn, nearly half of Japanese battle ships were destroyed; as the Japanese began to retreat, Admiral Yi ordered the final charge to destroy the remaining few. Admiral Yi's flagship sped forward. It was then when Admiral Yi was shot. Only 3 nearby captains, including his cousin, saw his death. Admiral Yi told his captains to keep his death secret and to continue the battle so that the morale of the soldiers would not drop.

The battle ended as an allied victory with a Japanese loss of 200. Only after the battle did the soldiers learn of Admiral Yi's death, and it is said that Chen Lin lamented that Admiral Yi died in place of himpg. 111 Woongjinweewinjungi #14 Yi Sun-shin by Baek Sukgi. (C) Woongjin Publishing Co., Ltd..

Aftermath

The Imjin War left deep scars in Korea. Farmlands were devastated, irrigation dikes were destroyed, villages and towns were burned down, the population was first plundered and then dispersed, and many skilled workers (celadonware makers, craftsmen, artisans, etc) were kidnapped and brought to Japan to help develop and expand Japan's crafts during the war.

In 1598 alone, the Japanese took some 38,000 ears as gruesome trophies. The long war reduced the productive capacity of farmlands from 1,708,000 kyol to 541,000 kyol. Many of captured Korean children were eventually sold as slaves to Portuguese traders, and sold to various European colonies over the world.

With its tremendous military losses, Japan was discouraged from waging wars abroad again for the next three centuries. Hideyoshi's much weakened military machine also led to the country's takeover by Tokugawa Ieyasu after his death. Ming Dynasty had to put in an enormous amount of human and material resources in this bloody war in Korea, which contributed to empty the State Treasury and aggravated its difficulties in defending its northeastern border against the emerging power of Manchu.

Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended. After the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, however, negotiations between the Korean court and the Tokugawa Shogunate were carried out via the Japanese lord on Tsushima Island, So Yoshitoshi. The So clan needed to restore commercial relations with Korea. Tokugawa Ieyasu also hoped to make peace with Korea.

In 1604, Tokugawa Ieyasu met Korea's demands and released some 3,000 captives. As a result, in 1607, a Korean mission visited Edo and diplomatic and trade relations were restored on a limited basis.

References

External links

Toyotomi Hideyoshi's Korean Invasions: the Bunroku Campaign (1592-93)
임진왜란 (very visual website)
The Battles of Imjin Waeran (in Korean)
The Imjin Waeran (in Korean)

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