The history of pottery in the Southern Levant describes the discovery and cultural development of pottery in the archaeological area of the Southern Levant, which includes the modern day polities of Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority administered areas of the West Bank of the Jordan and the Gaza strip.

Neolithic Period

The history of pottery in this region begins in the Late Neolithic period, sometimes known as Pottery Neolithic (PN) or occasionally, based on a supposed local sequence of the site of Jericho, Pottery Neolithic A.

Pre-pottery Neolithic (8300–5500 BC)

There is no good evidence for pottery production in Early Neolithic (Pre-pottery Neolithic/PP) times, but the existence of pyrotechnology that allowed humans to attain temperatures in excess of 1000 °C for reducing limestone to lime to make plaster, indicates a level of technology ripe for its discovery and spread. In the PPN period portable vessels of lime plaster, "called vaisselles blanche" or "white ware" served some of the functions that pottery later fulfilled. These vessels tended to be rather large and coarse and were somewhat rare.

There are some indications that pottery may have been in use in the third and final phase of Early Neolithic, PPNC (recognized Early Neolithic phases are, beginning with the earliest, PPNA, PPNB and PPNC); however such artifacts are rare, their provenance equivocal and the issue remains in doubt. Approximately sometime in the late 6th millennium BC pottery was introduced into the southern Levant and its became widely useed. The supposedly sophisticated forms and technological and decorative aspects suggested to archaeologists that it must have been received as an imported, technological advance from adjacent regions to the north. The evidence for this hypothesis, however, remains equivocal for lack of documentation in the archaeological record.

Pottery Neolithic (5500–4500 BC)

By the earliest PN phase pottery was ubiquitous and it remained so for virtually all periods in the southern Levant until modern times. Exceptions were in desert areas where semi-nomads favored less heavy, fragile and bulky arrangements. Pottery styles, based mostly on form, fabric and decorative elements have been used to help identify chrono-cultural phases. White ware remained in use, but it seems to have remained rare and the vessels were often small and rather delicate. It is possible that not a few such vessels were found and identified as pottery.

The earliest PN phase is associated with the Jordan Valley site of Sha'ar Hagolan. This pottery is sometimes called "Yarmukian Ware". The diagnostic pottery typical of this period is somewhat sophisticated. Its most outstanding aspect is the use of long, narrow, incised bands of lines filled with herringbone decoration, often painted red or yellow. Forms of vessels may be quite delicate and lug handles on small jars with long necks are not uncommon. More common, coarser and less well made vessels are also present but are less diagnostic for the period.

Common or cruder wares generally have simple shapes and are often less well finished and not decorated. Grass-wiped exteriors and the use of straw or vegetal temper are other characteristics of Neolithic pottery. Later Neolithic pottery tends to favor the use of different tempers, sand, gravel, small stones and sometimes grog (ground up pottery). Much Neolithic pottery is low-fired and did not attain temperatures much over 600 degrees C. Probably these vessels were fired in pits rather than in kilns, although such an hypothesis remains to be proven. To date there is no evidence in excavation based literature of how Neolithic peoples of the southern Levant fired their pottery.

Later Neolithic pottery has less distinctive features. At Jericho, one of the first Neolithic sites to be broadly excavated, K. Kenyon suggested two periods of LN, based on coarser and finer pottery groups. The former, supposedly representing a less sophisticated and earlier occupation was labeled PNA; the latter was called PNB. Many researchers now believe the difference to be the result of function rather than chronology, with the latter group representing fine or luxury ware.

The site of Munhatta, excavated by J. Perrot, has contributed a large series of ceramic assemblages dated to the Neolithic period. In one phase there are some extraordinarily sophisticated ceramic vessels of especially finely levigated, highly polished or burnished, black fabric. Other pottery suggests that some potters in this period, dated later than an earlier, "Yarmukian" phase at the site (identified by Shaa'r Hagolan type pottery), were highly skilled craftspeople. One researcher, Y. Garfinkel, refers to this phase as "Jericho IX" after a stratum and associated pottery excavated by J. Garstang at Jericho (he excavated at Jericho prior to Kenyon). The decorated pottery of this period often has red paint in the form of painted stripes, sometimes in large, wide herringbone-like decorations.

The most recent PN phase is named after the site of Wadi Rabah, excavated by J. Kaplan. Y. Garfinkel relegates this final LN period to Early Chalcolithic. The distinction seems to be mostly a matter of terminology.

There appears to be considerable regional variation in Neolithic pottery assemblages and not a little confusion as to what constitues chrono-culturally related assemblages. That is a function of the generally poor preservation of PN sites and the way in which they were excavated. Summary: Neolithic pottery may well have arrived as a full-blown technological set from more northerly regions. Pottery appears to have become ubiquitous in the southern Levant by late in the 6th millennium and remained as an integral part of human material culture up to the present. Some aspects of pottery, form, fabric, modes of decoration are relatively reliable diagnostic indicators of chrono-cultural identities of human society. Pottery, mostly in the form of sherds, often makes up the bulk of material culture artifacts found on excavated sites dating from the PN period.

Chalcolithic Period (4500–3300 BC)

The quality of pottery in Chalcolithic period ware is far improved from the previous PN's. Smaller jars were made on the potter's wheel, a significant technical innovation. The larger jars are still made on mats. Confirming evidence of this technique, part of a mat, was found at the Nahal Mishmar site.

This period is divided into two separate categories, based on parts of the country. However, it's largely referred to under the name of the most important known site of Chalcolithic society: Teleilat Ghassul. Other communities are in Beer Sheba and the Golan Heights (identified as B+G). These societies have common pottery forms, such as large storage jars for crops in both solid and liquid forms. Long narrow cylinder pierced handles are a diagnostic characteristic of Chalcolithic times.

The Ghassul community had a diagnostic pottery form, a V-shaped goblet (cornet), which was found throughout the sequence of the site. This form is very rarely found in the B+G group. This cup seems to be an important factor in the society of the age, particularly due to the cup being found on cultic figures. The B+G group, on the other hand, seems to have shepherding as a part of their culture. Their sites' diagnostic piece seems to be a churn, which was likely used to transform milk from domesticated animals into butter or cheese. This object, too, is found on the head of a cultic figure of the period. Both of these images are found on figures at the site of Gilat.

Decorations are simple in this period. In the Golan Heights, they are sometimes made by rope. However, throughout the country, simple geometric signs and red bands of paint are used.

Early Bronze Age (3300–2300 BC)

In the Early Bronze Age, differences can be seen between regional types. Despite the difficulty in differentiating between chronological progression and regional variations, we can identify certain continuous elements from the Chalcolithic period. The major one would be the “hole mouth” cooking pot, which was constant throughout the age.

Again a handle is characteristic of this period. This time the ledge handle diagnoses the period. There is also a clear difference between the northern and southern patterns of decoration. The north used highly burnished red slip, but this is rarely used in the south. The northerners would also use reddish brown paint and a rough brush, a technique known as “grain wash”. The inhabitants of the south on the other hand were more familiar with white slip ware with painted vertical orange lines, or ware decorated with incision techniques.

An important part of describing the pottery of this period is the burial pottery. Much of this pottery consists of small jars and bottles with different types of handles and spouts. Some of these are bottles with narrow necks and lug handles, and cups with a high loop handle.

Middle Bronze Age I (2300–2000 BC)

Although one could write about the Middle Bronze age by itself, I feel it important to distinguish this period from the rest. It is a time that is difficult to understand since civilization seemed to reduce considerably and many graves were found throughout the country.

Three major groups the Transjordan, the northern and the southern can define the pottery of this age. Despite this division of regional practices, there are still common aspects to the pottery as a whole throughout the land. Goblets, amphoriskoi (a small jar with two handles), and the “teapot” jar with the spout that gives it its name. Diagnostic to this period is the four-spout lamp.

The Transjordan grouping is to be found in sites like Bab edh-Dhra. It is marked by the burnished red slip, which barely appears in the other cultures, but is reminiscent of the previous Early Bronze Age.

The northerners are remarked by a pale red slip, and poorly decorated red stripes or circles. These northern sites are mainly in the areas of the Jezreel Valley, and Upper Galilee. They seem to have brought in much of the Early Bronze pottery onwards and still use ledge handles and formed them into the “envelope shape”. The northern family has also been found to be using imported Syrian gray/black ware. This foreign ware is “teapots” and goblets made on the wheel, and can be easily spotted due to the white horizontal/wavy lines.

The southerners of the central hill country, Jordan Valley, Shephelah and other sites are noted by their lack of red slip or painted decoration. They decorate using incision techniques, and a five tooth narrow comb. Apart from the countrywide norm, the south has handless jars with a wheel made flaring neck.

Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 BC)

This period is divided into three different sub periods: MBII A, B, and C. We shall see that B and C are closer linked than A. This period is diagnosed by the well-burnished red slip so often seen in the corresponding layers at digs. The slip is normally used on the smaller vessels of the period. Other decorating techniques found to be frequent amongst this period's pottery are horizontal sometimes triangular designs in black or red paint.

The second half of this period (B+C) is not seen by the burnished red slip, which all but disappeared during the eighteenth century, replaced by white/creamy slip. The astonishing event of this period is the mastery of the potters over the wheel. The pottery is often quite thinly walled and even kilned at high temperatures. Despite this, there is a progression of techniques from MBII A, which does denote continuity in society from then. Other noticeable traits of the period are a lack of painted design on most types of pottery and then only unicolored. The one color often tends to be stripes or circles with the odd bird making an appearance. These designs appear on ointment juglets.

The ointment juglet is the most important piece of pottery of the period. The fashion of juglets swings gradually from piriform ones to cylindrical. Amongst these vessels we find zoomorphic shapes like animals or human heads. These designs are often accompanied by “puncturing”, which used to be filled by white lime.

Lastly Chocolate on White Ware and Bichrome Ware are important pottery types appearing in the 16th century. The first of the two types consists of a thick white slip being applied followed by a dark brown paint. This type is found in the northern region of the country particularly close to the Jordan Valley. The Bichrome Ware the more important of the two can be found at Tel el-Ajjul and Meggido among others. Its “pendant” lines or stripes that come usually as black on white slip, or more commonly as red on black can help notice this type of pottery. Bichrome was imported from Cyprus.

Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC)

Due to the influx of imported types of pottery, the pottery of this period must be divided into four sub groups:

Local Pottery

The local shows that there is a clear evolution of the pottery through the MB to this period. The difference that can be remarked between the two periods is that the juglets that were once of great dispersion go down in popularity and become gray as the Late Bronze age begins. In fact the local pottery is now mass-produced in a rough and cheap manner.

Paint decoration returns to fashion, even though it is simply added to the light buff slip, and sometimes without slip. The paint shows many different geometric shapes, and sometimes inside painted on rectangular panels called metopes a sacred tree flanked by two antelopes can be found.

The Bichrome Group

Again in this period we can see that the majority of this group is red paint on black background. The most common vessels that we find this type in are kraters, jars and jugs. This group, after being tested with neutron activation techniques shows that it was imported from eastern Cyprus. The major controversy is whether the Cypriot market produced Palestinian styles for exporting purposes, or whether Canaanites were producing the pottery for the home consumption in Israel. This pottery was also to be found in Megiddo locally made.

Cypriot Imported Pottery

This is a selection of handmade pottery in different Ware styles. These styles are called: Base Ring, White Slip, Monochrome, White Shaved, White Painted, Bucchero. Of these different kinds, Monochrome, White Slip, and Base Ring were most used. It appears as though this type of pottery was found to be decorative in nature rather than useful.

Mycenaean Imports

This pottery was produced on inland Greece and throughout the Aegean islands. The fabrication technique used was fast-wheel, with fine well-levigated clay. The slip was of a light cream color to give the background to the exquisite decoration normally done in dark-brown color. Vessel types were small and closed flasks or “stirrup jars”.

Iron Age I (1200–1000 BC)

There are really two major types of pottery going on inside two separate societies in the Land of the Bible at this time. These are the Philistines and the Israelites.

Philistine Bichrome Ware

This is the descendant of the imported Mycenaean Ware of the past period, which is known also as Mycenaean IIIC1b. This new style of pottery is made locally. Neutron analysis proves that it could have even been made in the same workshop. It began at approximately the 12th century BC and began to disappear towards the end of the 11th century BC. The style is slightly influenced by Egypt but mostly by Canaanite. The Mycenaean tradition holds a firm grasp over the shape of the pottery (for example “stirrup jars”), whereas bottles are found to share Cypriot styles (seen by tall and narrow necks). The decoration of this new ware has changed to red and black paints on a whitish slip. Birds and fish are found to be common on Mycenaean IIIC1b but less on the new style, in fact by the second half of the 11th century the bird which was once thought to be sacred disappeared from the pottery.

Israelite Pottery:

This is a lot cheaper and less refined than other pottery at this stage in history. The new Israelite settlers began by using very basic types of Canaanite pottery until they began developing just very simple copies of the purchased pottery so as to meet their needs. The hallmark of this early Israelite style is the pithoi. They are scattered over these sites. Many of the storage jars had The “Collard Rim”, which were most popular to the central part of Israel.

Iron Age II (1000–586 BC)

During the period of the United Monarchy, Israelite pottery improved. Finishing techniques used a remarkable amount of red slip, applied by hand and smoothed with an irregular burnish. At the division of the kingdom, however, pottery styles broke into two separate traditions.

Samaria Ware is a general name given to the pottery of Israel (the northern kingdom), even though there is a wide variety of forms and styes. They can be put into two separate groups. The first is thick walled, with a high foot and red slip (sometimes burnished), most often shaped as bowls. The second is made of fine particled clay, and decorated with concentric stripes of red/yellowish colored slip.

Judean pottery is altogether different, and slowly progresses into more and more sophisticated types/styles. By the 8th/7th centuries BC, Jerusalem pottery was especially good. All over the southern kingdom, a technique known as “wheel burnish” was used. This term describes how an orange/red slip was applied, while the pot was on the wheel, and then burnished to a gloss using the potter's hands or smooth tools.

After 586 BC

See also

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• Ancient Near East
• History of the Levant
• History of Palestine

Pottery | Ancient Near East | History of the Levant | Ancient Israel and Judah | Palestinian arts | Palestinian history