Histamine

Histamine is a biogenic amine chemical involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. New evidence also indicates that histamine plays a role in chemotaxis of white blood cells.

Synthesis and metabolism

Chemically, histamine is 2-(4-imidazolyl)ethylamine and has the formula C₅H₉N₃. Histamine is derived from the decarboxylation of the amino acid histidine, a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme L-histidine decarboxylase. It is a hydrophilic vasoactive amine (thus the name). Once formed, histamine is either stored or rapidly inactivated. Histamine is broken down by histamine-N-methyltransferase and diamine oxidase, and is also possibly taken up by a transporter. Some forms of food poisoning are due to conversion of histidine into histamine in spoiled foodstuffs, such as fish.

Storage and release

Most tissue histamine is found in granules in mast cells or basophils. Mast cells are especially numerous at sites of potential injury - the nose, mouth, and feet; internal body surfaces; and blood vessels. Non-mast cell histamine is found in several tissues, including the brain, where it functions as a neurotransmitter. Another important site of histamine storage and release is the enterochromaffin-like (ECL)cell of the stomach.

The most important pathophysiologic mechanism of mast cell and basophil histamine release is immunologic. These cells, if sensitized by IgE antibodies attached to their membranes, degranulate when exposed to the appropriate antigen. Certain amines, including drugs such as morphine and tubocurarine, can displace histamine in granules and cause its release.

Mechanism of action

Histamine exerts its actions by combining with specific cellular receptors located on cells. The four histamine receptors that have been discovered are designated H1 through H4.

H₁ histamine receptor - found on smooth muscle, endothelium, and central nervous system tissue; causes vasodilation, bronchoconstriction, smooth muscle activation, and separation of endothelial cells (responsible for hives), and pain and itching due to insect stings; the primary receptors involved in allergic rhinitis symptoms and motion sickness
H₂ histamine receptor - located on parietal cells, which primarily regulate gastric acid secretion
H₃ histamine receptor - decreased neurotransmitter release: histamine, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin
H₄ histamine receptor - unknown physiological role. Found primarily in the thymus, small intestine, spleen, and colon. It is also found on basophils and in the bone marrow.

Sleep regulation

Histamine is released as a neurotransmitter. The cell bodies of neurons which release histamine are found in the posterior hypothalamus, in various tuberomammillary nuclei. From here, these histaminergic neurons project throughout the brain, to the cortex through the medial forebrain bundle. Histaminergic action is known to modulate sleep. Classically, antihistamines (H1 histamine receptor antagonists) produce sleep. Likewise, destruction of histamine releasing neurons, or inhibition of histamine synthesis leads to an inability to maintain vigilance. Finally, H3 receptor antagonists (which stimulate histamine release) increase wakefulness.

It has been shown that histaminergic cells have the most wakefulness-related firing pattern of any neuronal type thus far recorded. They fire rapidly during waking, fire more slowly during periods of relaxation/tiredness and completely stop firing during REM and non-REM sleep. Histaminergic cells can be recorded firing just before an animal shows signs of waking.

Histamine disorder effects

Histapenia (deficiency of histamine) and histadelia (abundance of histamine) can cause both neurological and physical disorders. Histapenia may be caused by excess copper levels, as this decreases blood histamine.

Sexual response

Research has shown that histamine is released as part of the human orgasm from mast cells in the genitals, and the histamine release has been connected to the sex flush among women. If this response is lacking while a woman also has trouble achieving orgasm, this may be a sign of histapenia. In such cases, a doctor may prescribe diet supplements with folic acid and niacin (which used in conjunction can increase blood histamine levels and histamine release), or L-histidine. Conversely, men with high histamine levels may suffer from premature ejaculations.

Schizophrenia

It has been found that about half the patients classified as suffering from schizophrenia have low histamine levels in the blood. This may be because of antipsychotics that have unwanted effect on histamine, such as Quetiapine. Although, in these cases, as histamine levels were increased, their health improved.

Other effects

Histapenia (histamine deficiency): mouth ulcers, headaches or allergies, heavy body hair growth, ideas of grandeur, undue suspicion of people, racing thoughts, the feeling of being controlled, ringing in the ears, and hearing/seeing things abnormally.

Histadelia (histamine abundance): hyperactivity, obsessive-compulsive disorders, inner tensions, mind blanks, phobias, chronic depression, suicidal tendencies, pain intolerance, rapid metabolism, lean build, profuse sweating, seasonal allergies, frequent common colds.

External links

The Analyst: Histapenia
http://www.nahrungsmittel-intoleranz.com/content/view/23/46/ - deutschsprachige Homepage

Biogenic amines | Ethylamines | Imidazoles | Immune system | Vasodilators

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