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For other meanings see Hijra.

In the culture of the Indian subcontinent a hijra (also known by a number of different names and romanised spellings) is a physically male or intersex person who is often considered a member of "the third sex." They usually refer to themselves as female at the language level, and usually dress as women. Census data does not exist, but estimates range from 50,000 to 5,000,000 in India alone.

Although they are usually referred to in English as "eunuchs", relatively few have any genital modifications.According Mumbai health organisation The Humsafar Trust, only 8% of hijras visiting their clinic are nirwaan (castrated). A third gender has existed in the subcontinent from the earliest records, and was clearly acknowledged in Vedic culture, throughout the history of Hinduism, as well as in the royal courts of Islamic rulers.

Terminology

The Hindi word "hijra" (sometimes romansied as hijira or hijda) is written as हीजड़ा in devanagari. It has a pronunciation between those of "heejra" and "heejda"; the IPA notation is .

A number of terms across the culturally and linguistically diverse Indian subcontinent represent similar sex/gender categories. While these are rough synonyms, they may be better understood as seperate identities due to regional cultural differences. The term kinnar is common throughout central India, including Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, and several national gatherings and associations have chosen to use this word. In the Punjab and much of northern India, the word chakka (or chackka) is used. In Tamil Nadu the equivalent term is aravanni, aravani, or aruvani. In Urdu, both in Pakistan and India, the term khusra is used. In South India, jogappa and jogta has a similar meaning. Other terms include jankha and suhaagan.

The word kothi (or koti) is common across India, although kothis are often distinguished from hijras. Kothis are regarded as feminine males or men/boys who take a feminine role in sex with men, but do not live in the kind of intentional communities that hijras usually live in. Local equivalents include durani (Kolkata), menaka (Cochin),Naz Foundation International, Briefing Paper 3: Developing community-based sexual health services for males who have sex with males in South Asia. August 1999. Paper online (Microsoft Word file). meti (Nepal), and zenana (Pakistan).

All of these names are now considered preferable to the English term "eunuch".

Gender and sexuality

These identities have no exact match in the modern Western taxonomy of gender and sexual orientation. Most are born apparently male, but some may be intersex (with ambiguous genitalia). They are often perceived as a third sex, and most see themselves as neither men nor women. However, some may see themselves (or be seen as) females,"Don't call us eunuchs or Hijras or by other 'names'. We like ourselves to be called as females....Yes we are transgendered females," says Aasha Bharathi, president of Tamil Nadu Aravanigal Association. Reported in Aravanis get a raw deal, by M. Bhaskar Sai, The News Today, November 27, 2005. feminine males or androgynes. Some, especially those who speak English and are influenced by international discourses around sexual minorities may identify as transgender or transsexual women. Unlike Western transsexual women, hijras generally do not attempt to pass as women. Reportedly, few have genital modifications, although some certainly do, and some consider nirwaan ("castrated") hijras to be the "true" hijras.

A male who takes a "receptive" or feminine role in sex with a man will often identify as a kothi (or the local equivalent term). While kothis are usually distinguished from hijras as a seperate sexual identity, they often dress as women and act in a feminine manner in public spaces, even using feminine language to refer to themselves and each other. The usual partners of hijras and kothis are masculine men, whose sexual identity is as a "normal" male who is attracted to women.See, for example, In Their Own Words: The Formulation of Sexual and Reproductive Health Behaviour Among Young Men in Bangladesh, Shivananda Khan, Sharful Islam Khan and Paula E. Hollerbach, for the Catalyst Consortium. They are often married, and any relationships or sex with kothis or hijras are usually kept secret from the community at large. Hijras and kothis often have a name for these masculine sexual or romantic partners; for example, panthi in Bangaldesh, giriya in Delhi or sridhar in Cochin. Hijras' and kothis' sexual identities may overlap with those of Western passive homosexual males, but are perhaps closer to the "queens" of pre-stonewall Western culture with their feminine gender identity.

Some, while clearly feminine in behaviour, may marry women and live as men. Others who live openly as hijras may form relationships with men and even marry,See, for example, various reports of Sonia Ajmeri's marriage. e.g. 'Our relationship is sacred', despardes.com although their marriage is not usually recognised by law or religion.

Becoming and living as a hijra

Becoming a hijra is a process of socialization into a "hijra family" through a relationship characterised as chela "student" to guru "teacher", leading to a gradual assumption of femininity. Stereotypically each guru lives with at least five chelas; her chelas assume her surname and are considered part of her lineage. Chelas are expected to give their income to their guru, who manages the household. Hijra families are close knit communities, which often have their own houses.

The culmination of this process is a religious ritual that includes castration. Although it is expected in the hijra subculture, not all hijras undergo castration, and the percentage of hijras which are eunuchs is unknown. The operation, referred to by hijras as a nirvan, or rebirth, involves the severing of the penis and testes with a knife cut performed without anesthesia by a dai (traditional midwife). In modern times, some hijras may undergo sex reassignment surgery, but such cases are rare.

Social status and making a living

Most hijras live at the margins of society with very low status; the very word "hijra" is sometimes used in a derogatory manner. Few employment opportunities are available to hijras. Many get their income from performing at ceremonies, begging or prostitution — an occupation of eunuchs also recorded in premodern times. Violence against hijras, especially hijra sex workers, is often brutal, and occurs in public spaces, police stations, prisons, and their homes.Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. Report online.
See also: Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community, released in September 2003. Reported in Being a Eunuch, By Siddarth Narrain, for Frontline, 14 October, 2003. As with transgender people in most of the world, they face extreme discrimination in health, housing, education, employment, immigration, law and any bureaucracy that is unable to place them into male or female gender categories. One hijra reports waiting in the emergency room of a hospital for hours while medical staff debated whether to admit her to the men's or women's ward.

Hijras are often encountered in public places demanding money from young males on the pretext that these men have a proper gender and social status. Upon refusal, the hijra often can make it difficult for the passerby with obscene gestures, filthy language, and even sexual advances in front of the public and the passerby's own family. This is a very common sight in the long distance trains in India and even local trains in Mumbai. Fearing these advances and wanting to avoid the socially unacceptable activities of these hijras, young men have to pay or be bold enough to refuse.

Hijras also perform traditional religious ceremonies at marriages and at the birth of male babies. Hijra attendance at birth and wedding ceremonies are usually uninvited, involving music, singing, and sexually suggestive dancing. These are intended to bring good luck and fertility. As per societal norms, the host pays the hijras a fee. It is believed in India that the newborn baby will be blessed if exposed to the Hijra's manhood. In recent times, foreign negative attitudes have affected the Hijra's cultural status. Some now view them with contempt and bribe hijras to shorten their ceremonies. No matter what attitude individuals have toward hijras, most people respect the tradition that hijras have supernatural powers attributed to their castration that, if offended, bring bad luck.

Politics and activism

Many modern hijras, faced with health concerns and discrimination, have become politically active. For example, the All-India Eunuchs’ Welfare Association was formed in 1993-94, as well as HIV/AIDS awareness groups to combat health problems within their communities. One such group is the Dai Welfare Society, a mutual aid society formed in 1999 in Mumbai by and for hijras. The group estimate that half of hijras living in Mumbai have HIV.The Dying of The Evening Stars VI, by Sonia Faleiro. Published in Tehelka, October 28, 2005. Another group is the Hijra Kalyan Sabha.

Other hijras have been elected to high political positions; Shabnam Mausi became India's first hijra MP in 1999 (as an independent), only 5 years since hijras have been able to vote. Another hijra, Kamla Jaan, was elected as mayor of Katni, while another, Meenabai, became the president of the Sehora town municipality, the oldest civic body in the state. In 2005, 24-year-old hijra Sonia Ajmeri ran for state assembly on an independent ticket to represent the estimated 40,000 eunuchs in Gujarat. The wave of hijras entering politics has not been without controversy. In November of 2000, Asha Devi was elected mayor of Gorakhpur, a post reserved for a woman. The city had a population of approximately 500,000 as of 1991. She was unseated when a court decreed that she was a man,http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/may/13up.htm but was later reinstated.

Commonly Hijra-rights groups also support gay rights issues in the Indian subcontinent, but this is a newly-emerging situation.

History

The ancient Kama Sutra mentions the performance of fellatio by eunuchs — both "those disguised as males, and those that are disguised as females."Kama Sutra, Chapter IX, Of the Auparishtaka or Mouth Congress. Text online.

In Islamic societies, they were associated with the ruling class and hired as court eunuchs. Hijras as servants for the muslim nobility were not unusual until the 1950s.

During British colonialism, negative attitudes towards hijras were imported from Europe. The British passed laws outlawing their practices. Homosexual depictions in many Hindu temples were effaced.In India from the 1920s to the 1940s, "Gandhi decided to send squads of his devotees to destroy the erotic representations, particularly those depicting homoeroticism and lesbianism, carved into Hindu temples dating from the eleventh century, as part of a program to encourage both Indians and non-Indians to believe that such behaviors were the result of foreign, namely Euro-western, influence". Conner, Randolph P., Lundschen, David Hatfield Sparks and Mariya Sparks, Encyclopaedia of Queer Myth, Symbol, and Spirit. London: Cassell, 1997. Quoted in The Suppression of Lesbian and Gay History, Roctor Norton. After independence, anti-hijra laws were repealed, but a law outlawing castration, a central part of the hijra community, was left intact, though rarely enforced.

Hijras and religion

In Hindu contexts, hijras belong to a special caste and are special devotees of the mother goddess Bahuchara Mata. Within Muslim contexts, the hijra third gender is believed to be the result of Allah's will. All hijras, whether Hindu or Muslim, have been affected by Islamic practices. For example, they bury their dead instead of the normal cremating.

In Tamil Nadu each year in April/May, hijras — or aravanis, as they are called there — celebrate an 18-day religious festival. The aravani temple is located in the village Koovagam in the Ulundurpet taluk in Villupuram district, and is devoted to the deity Koothandavar. During the festival, the aravanis reenact a story of the religious epic Mahabharatha: the mythical wedding of Lord Krishna (who had assumed the form of a woman) and Lord Aravaan, son of Arjuna, followed by Aravaan's subsequent sacrifice. They then mourn Aravaan's death through ritualistic dances and by breaking their bangles. An annual beauty peageant is also held, as well as various health and HIV/AIDS seminars. Hijras from all over the country travel to this festival. A personal subjective experience of the hijras in this festival is shown in the fascinating documentary India's Ladyboys, by BBC Three.

Documentaries

  • Jareena, Portrait of a Hijda (1990) *
  • The Hijras: India's Third Gender (2001) *
  • India's Ladyboys (2003) *
  • Between the Lines: India's Third Gender (2005) *.
  • Middle sexes HBO documentary includes segment on modern Hijda (2005) *

Hijras in Indian films

Hijras have been on screen in Indian cinema since its inception, historically as comic relief. A notable turning point occurred in 1974 when real Hijras appeared in a song and dance sequence in Kunwaara Baap ("Single Father"). One of the first sympathetic portrayals was in Mani Ratnam's Bombay (1995). 1997's Tamanna starred male actor Paresh Rawal in a central role as Tiku, a hijra who raises a young orphan. Pooja Bhatt produced and also starred in the movie, with her father Mahesh Bhatt co-writing and directing.

See also

References

  1. Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India by Serena Nanda. Wadsworth Publishing, 1998. (ISBN 0-53450-903-7)
  2. Lovemaps, p. 106, by John Money. Irvington Publishers, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 0-87975-456-7)
  3. Myself Mona Ahmed. by Dayanita Singh (Photographer) and Mona Ahmed. Scalo Publishers (September 15, 2001). ISBN 3908247462
  4. The Third sex and Human Rights, by Rajesh Talwar. Gyan Publishing House, 1999. ISBN 8121202663
  5. Gendered Bodies: The Case of the ‘Third Gender’ in India, by Anuja Agrawal, in 'Contributions to Indian Sociology', n.s., 31 (1997): 273–97
  6. Hijras: Who We Are, by Meena Balaji and other Eunuchs as told to Ruth Lor Malloy. Toronto, Think Asia Publisher. 1997.

Footnotes

External links

Transgender in non-western cultures | Luck | Pakistani culture | Indian culture | Bangladeshi culture | Islamic law | Hindu law

Hijraed | Hijra | Hidźra

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Hijra (South Asia)".

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