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The French and Indian War was the nine-year North American chapter of the Seven Years' War. The conflict resulted in the British acquiring Canada, while Spain gained Louisiana (New France) in compensation for its loss of Florida to the British. French presence in North America was almost completely removed and the Aboriginal people of North America were decimated, pacified, or moved farther west.

Nomenclature for the North American conflict

Although scholars, such as Fred Anderson, generally refer to all facets of the conflict as the Seven Years' War, the conflict is traditionally referred to as the French and Indian War in the United States, as it is seen from the perspective of British American forces fighting against French forces and their Algonquin and Huron allies in North America. (British and British American forces had allied with the Iroquois.) In Britain, France, and Canada, the designation French and Indian War is nearly unknown: English Canada, France, and Britain typically refer to the war as the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), dating the war not from the start of actual fighting in North America, but rather from the official declaration of war in Europe. French Canadians refer to it both as la Guerre des sept ans and the Guerre de la conquête (War of the Conquest) since it is the war in which Canada was conquered by the British and became part of the British Empire. Because of Quebec provincial regulations on Canada-Quebec History curriculum in high school , Anglo-Quebecers also refer to it as The War of the Conquest. In Ontario, it is now increasingly also referred to as "The War of the Conquest," or just "The Conquest." In Britain, it is simply regarded as the most important theatre of the Seven Years' War.

Causes

Beginning of the War

The main point of conflict between French and British colonists was the ownership of the Ohio Country. Both the British and the French claimed the territory as did the Iroquois Confederacy. The Treaty of Utrecht, which ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713, had stated that the Iroquois were subjects of the British Crown. Since the Iroquois claimed the Ohio Country as their land, the British asserted that the Ohio Country rightfully belonged to them. The French, of course, didn't agree with the British claim.

Céleron's expedition

In June of 1749, Galissonière, the Govenor-General of New France, ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to mount an expedition to the Ohio Country with the objective of removing British influence from the area. Céloron was also to confirm the allegiance of the Aboriginals inhabiting the territory to the French crown.

Céloron's expedition consisted of 213 soldiers of the Troupes de la Marine (Colonial Regulars), who would be transported by 23 canoes. The expedition left Lachine on June 15, 1749 and two days later reached Fort Frontenac. The expedition then continued along the shoreline of present day Lake Erie. At Chatutauqua Protage (Barcelona, New York), the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River.

The expedition headed south to Ohio, and Céloron buried some lead plates which were engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country. Whenever British merchants or fur-traders were encountered by the French, they were informed of the illegality of being on French territory and told to leave the Ohio Country.

When Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown, the Aboriginals in the area informed Céloron they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British regardless of what the French told them to do. (Fowler, 14)

The French continued their expedition. At its farthest point south, Céloron's expedition reached the junction between the Ohio River and the Miami River. The junction lay just south of the village of Pickawillany, where the Miami Chief, "Old Britain" lived.

When Céloron arrived at Pickawillany, he informed "Old Britain" of the "dire consequences" if the elderly chief continued to trade with the British. "Old Britain" ignored the warning. After his meeting with Old Britain, Céloron and his expedition began the trip home. They didn't reach Montreal until November 10, 1749.

The best sum of the expedition's findings came from none other than Céloron himself. In his report, Céloron wrote: "All I can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French, and are entirely devoted to the English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back." (Fowler, 14)

Langlade's expedition

In the spring of 1752, Govenor-General of New France Charles Le Moyne de Longueil, dispatched an expedition to the Ohio River area. The expedition was led by Charles-Michel Mouet de Langlade, an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men comprised of Ottowa Aboriginals and French-Canadians. His objective was to "punish" the people of Pickawillany for not following Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British.

Attack on Pickawillany

At dawn on June 21, 1752 a French war party attacked the Miami village, killing fourteen people of the Miami nation, including chief "Old Britain". The expedition then returned home.

Marin's expedition

On March 17, 1752, the Govenor-General of New France, Marquis de la Jonquière died. His temporary replacement was Charles le Moyne de Longueil. It wasn't until July 1, 1752 that Ange Duquense de Menneville arrived in New France to take over the "reigns".

In the spring of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue, was given command of a 2,000 man force of Troupes de la Marine and Aboriginals. His orders were to protect the King's land in Ohio from the British.

Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out four years previously. The main difference in the two expeditions were that whereas Céloron had buried lead plates Marin was constructing and garrisoning forts.

Marin's Forts

The first fort that was constructed by Paul Marin was at Presque Isle (Erie, Pennsylvania) on Lake Erie's south shore. He then had a road built to the headwaters of Rivière aux Boeuf. Marin then constructed a second fort at Le Boeuf (Waterford, Pennsylvania). This fort was designed to guard the headwaters of the Rivière aux Boeuf.

Tanaghrisson's proclaimation

On September 3, 1753, Tanaghrisson, Chief of the Mingo arrived at Fort Le Boeuf. Tanaghrisson hated the French because, as legend had it the French killed and ate his father. Tanaghrisson told Marin, "I shall strike at whoever..." (Fowler, 31) This was of course a threat to the French.

The show of force by the French had alarmed the Iroquois in the area. They sent Mohawk runners to William Johnson's manor in Upper New York.

William Johnson was known to the Iroquois as "Warraghiggey", meaning "he who does big business". Johnson was an Anglo-Irish man, born in County Meath, Ireland. He felt that in Ireland he had no future. When his Uncle, (Admiral) Sir Peter Warren asked Johnson to manage his affairs in the New World, Johnson quickly agreed. He arrived in 1738, and quickly became a respected member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area. In 1746, Johnson was made a colonel of the Iroquois, and later a colonel of the Western New York Militia.

At Albany, New York there was a meeting between Govenor Clinton of New York and Chief Hendrick, as well as several other officials from a handful of American colonies. Chief Hendrick inisted that the British abide by their obligations and block French expansion. When an unsatisfactory respose was offered by Clinton, Chief Hendrick proclaimed that the "Covenant Chain", a long standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown was broken.

Dinwiddie's reaction

Govenor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia found himself in a predicament. Many merchants had invested heavily in fur-trading in Ohio. If the French made good on their claim to the Ohio Country and drove out the British then the Virginian merchants would be out a lot of money.

Dinwiddie could not possibly allow the loss of the Ohio Country to France. To counter the French military presence in Ohio, in October 1753 Dinwiddie ordered Major George Washington of the Virginia militia to deliver a message to the commander of the French forces in the Ohio Country, Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Washington along with his interpreter Jacob Van Braam and several other men left for Fort Le Boeuf on the 31 of October.

Dinwiddie's Ultimatium

A few days later, Washington and his party arrived at Wills Creek (Cumberland, Maryland). Here Washington enlisted the help of Christopher Gist, a surveyor who was familiar with the area. Gist joined the party.

Washington and his party arrived at Logstown on November 26, 1753. At Logstown, Washington met with Tanaghrisson, Chief of the Mingo. Tanaghrisson was angry over the encroachment by the French military of his land. Washington convinced Tanaghrisson to accompany his small group to Fort Le Boeuf.

Washington meets Saint-Pierre

On November 12, 1753, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre invited Washington to dine with him that evening. Over dinner Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie that demanded an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre was quite civil in his response, saying, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it." (Fowler, 35)

Washington's party left Fort Le Boeuf early on November 13, 1753. By December 12, 1753 they had arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia. In his report, Washington stated, "The French had swept south." (Fowler, 36) They had constructed and garrisoned forts at Presque Isle, Le Boeuf and Venango.

Overview

The French and Indian War was the last of four major colonial wars between the British, the French, and their Native American allies. Unlike the previous three wars, the French and Indian War began on North American soil and then spread to Europe, where Britain and France continued fighting. Britain officially declared war on France on May 15, 1756, marking the beginnings of the Seven Years' War in Europe. Native Americans fought for both sides but primarily alongside the French (with one exception being the Iroquois Confederacy which sided with the colonies and Britain). The first major event was in 1754. Major George Washington, then twenty-one years of age, was sent to negotiate boundaries with the French, who did not give up their forts. Washington led a group of Virginian (colonial) troops to confront the French at Fort Duquesne (present day Pittsburgh). Washington stumbled upon the French, and in the ensuing skirmish, a French Officer (Joseph Coulon de Jumonville) was killed, news of which would certainly provoke a strong French response. Washington pulled back a few miles and established Fort Necessity. The French forced Washington and his men to retreat. Meanwhile, the Albany Congress was taking place as means to discuss further action.

Edward Braddock led a campaign against the French in 1755; Washington was among the British and colonial troops. Braddock employed European tactics: bold, linear marches and firing formations. This led to disaster at the Monongahela, where the French and natives, though heavily outmanned and outgunned (the British had a heavy cannon), used superior tactics to gun down and rout the British. Braddock was killed; Washington, despite four close calls, escaped unharmed and led the survivors in retreat. When he took off his jacket, it had four bullet holes in it. Major French victories continued at Fort William Henry, Fort Duquesne, and Carillon, where Montcalm famously defeated five times his number.

1756 brought with it William Pitt, Secretary of State of Great Britain. His leadership, and France's continued neglect of the North-American theatre, turned the tide in favour of the British. The French were driven from many frontier posts such as Fort Niagara, and the key Fortress Louisbourg fell to the British in 1758. In 1759, the Battle of the Plains of Abraham gave Quebec City to the British, who had to withstand a siege there after the Battle of Sainte-Foy a year later. In September of 1760, Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, the King's Governor of New France, negotiated a surrender with British General Jeffrey Amherst. General Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.

French and Indian War timeline
Year Dates Event Location
1754 May 28
July 3 		Battle of Jumonville Glen
Battle of the Great Meadows (Fort Necessity) 		Uniontown, Pennsylvania
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
1755 May 29 – July 9
June 3 – 16
July 9
September 8 		Braddock expedition
Battle of Fort Beauséjour
Battle of the Monongahela
Battle of Lake George 		Western Pennsylvania
Sackville, New Brunswick
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Lake George, New York
1756 August 10 – 14
September 8 		Battle of Fort Oswego
Kittanning Expedition 		Oswego, New York
Western Pennsylvania
1757 August 2 – 6 Battle of Fort William Henry Lake George, New York
1758 July 7 – 8
September 14
October 12 		Battle of Carillon (Fort Ticonderoga)
Battle of Fort Duquesne
Battle of Fort Ligonier 		Ticonderoga, New York
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Western Pennsylvania
1759 July
July 6 – 26
July 31
September 13 		Battle of Ticonderoga (1759)
Battle of Fort Niagara
Battle of Beauport
Battle of the Plains of Abraham 		Ticonderoga, New York
Fort Niagara, New York
Quebec City
Quebec City
1760 April 28
August 16 – 24 		Battle of Sainte-Foy
Battle of the Thousand Islands 		Quebec City
Ogdensburg, New York
1762 Battle of Signal Hill St. John's, Newfoundland
1763 February 10 Treaty of Paris Paris, France

Outcome

The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. The treaty resulted in France's loss of all its possessions in North America (all of Canada was ceded to Britain) except Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands off Newfoundland. France regained the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. The economic value of these islands was greater than that of Canada at the time, because of their rich sugar crops, and the islands were easier to defend. Spain gained Louisiana in compensation for its loss of Florida to the British.

One result of the war was that Britain gained control of a strip of territory along the St. Lawrence River that now forms part of the Province of Quebec with approximately 54,000 French-speaking, Roman Catholic population. Near the beginning of the war, in 1755, the British had expelled French-speaking populations in Acadia to Louisiana, creating the Cajun population, the Acadians would not be allowed to return until 1764. The European theatre of the war was settled by the Treaty of Hubertusburg on February 15, 1763.

Reasons for French defeat

The people of mainland France had some difficulty accepting mercantilism, an economic theory that emphasised export trade. The thriving mercantilism of the Dutch and the British enabled them to fight wars on land and sea, recouping the costs of such wars with income from productive colonies in the Americas and Asia. With every war that France engaged in, often in attempts to overthrow Dutch commercial superiority, she struggled to find the finances to push on. By 1672, France had the most powerful army on land, and was a growing naval threat. But due to financial problems, France actually had to withdraw its navy after successful victories against the Dutch. France was never able to effectively shake her people's resistance to mercantilism. By the 1680's, France’s growing military might, her success against the Dutch, the revocation of Protestant toleration, and the incursions on British American traders made her the target of King William of England. With Louis XIV's lavish spending after his victories in the Franco-Dutch War (1670s), and Jean-Baptiste Colbert’s struggling economic policy, France would be no match for the British Royal Navy. The 1688 war of the Grand Alliance would show that not only Britain felt threatened by France. The Holy Roman Empire allied with, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, the United Provinces, and Britain to fight off France’s incursion on German territory. It also served as an excuse to cripple French Canadian territorial expansion in Canada. King William's War, as it was known in North America, would be the start of subsequent conflicts in North America known as the French and Indian Wars (Intercolonial Wars). British-American militia would make successive attempts at conquering New France. With every American war, the British Americans gained more and more ground. Its apex would be the War of the Conquest in 1759. Once again, France's economy could not keep up with the costs of war and she once again would provide little naval aid to the colonies. Today, some people in Quebec blame France for abandoning them in 1759, but the reality is that if France had sent a powerful navy to defend New France, she would have done so at the expense of mainland France. New France had, up until then, failed to show any significant benefit to France and was not worth keeping at the risk of losing European territory.

Minor facts

Present day locations of battles and expeditions

United States

Canada

Unknown Location

Further reading

  • Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766. New York: Knopf, 2000. ISBN 0375406425.
  • Anderson, Fred. The War that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking 2005. ISBN 0670034541. Released in conjunction with the 2006 PBS miniseries ''The War that Made America.
  • Eckert, Allan W. Wilderness Empire. Bantam Books, 1994, originally published 1969. ISBN 0-553-26488-5. Second volume in a series of historical narratives, with emphasis on Sir William Johnson. Academic historians often regard Eckert's books, which are written in the style of novels, to be fiction.
  • Fowler, W.M. Empires at War: The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America, 1754-1763. New York: Walker, 2005. ISBN 0-8027-1411-0
  • Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988. ISBN 0393306402.
  • Parkman, Francis. Montcalm and Wolfe: The French and Indian War. Originally published 1884. New York: Da Capo, 1984. ISBN 0-306-81077-8.

See also

External links

French and Indian War | Conflicts in Canada | History of North America

Franske og indianske Krig | Franzosen- und Indianerkrieg | Guerre de Sept Ans (Amérique du Nord) | フレンチ・インディアン戦争 | ფრანგებისა და ინდიელების 1754-1763 წლების ომი | Franse en Indiaanse oorlog | Brytyjska wojna z Indianami i Francuzami | Guerra Franco-Indígena

 

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