This article is about trigonometric Fourier series for periodic functions; for the general notion of Fourier expansions, see orthonormal basis.

The Fourier series is a mathematical tool used for analyzing an arbitrary periodic function by decomposing it into a weighted sum of much simpler sinusoidal component functions sometimes referred to as normal Fourier modes, or simply modes for short. The weights, or coefficients, of the modes, are a one-to-one mapping of the original function. These modal coefficients are sometimes themselves confusingly referred to as "modes" for brevity, especially in physics literature. Fourier series serve many useful purposes, as manipulation and conceptualization of the modal coefficients are often easier than with the original function.

Areas of application include electrical engineering, vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal and image processing, and data compression. Using the tools and techniques of spectroscopy, for example, astronomers can deduce the chemical composition of a star by analyzing the frequency components, or spectrum, of the star's emitted light. Similarly, engineers can optimize the design of a telecommunications system using information about the spectral components of the data signal that the system will carry. See also spectrum analyzer.

The Fourier series is named after the French scientist and mathematician Joseph Fourier, who used them in his influential work on heat conduction, Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur (The Analytical Theory of Heat), published in 1822.

Definition

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General form

Given a complex-valued function f of real argument t, $f:\backslash mathbb\{R\}\backslash rightarrow\backslash mathbb\{C\}$, where f(t) is piecewise continuous, periodic with period T, and square-integrable over the interval from $t\_1$ to $t\_2$ of length T, that is,

where

• $T=t\_2\; -\; t\_1,\; \backslash$ is the period,

• $t\_1$ and $t\_2$ are times to integrate between.

the Fourier series expansion of f is:

$f(t)\; =\; \backslash frac\{a\_0\}\{2\}+\backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}a\_n\; \backslash cos(\backslash omega\_n\; t)\; +\; b\_n\; \backslash sin(\backslash omega\_n\; t)$

where, for any non-negative integer n:

• $\backslash omega\_n\; =\; n\backslash frac\{2\backslash pi\}\{T\}$     is the nth harmonic (in radians) of the function f,

• $a\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{T\}\backslash int\_\{t\_1\}^\{t\_2\}\; f(t)\; \backslash cos(\backslash omega\_n\; t)\backslash ,\; dt$     are the even Fourier coefficients of f, and
• $b\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{T\}\backslash int\_\{t\_1\}^\{t\_2\}\; f(t)\; \backslash sin(\backslash omega\_n\; t)\backslash ,\; dt$     are the odd Fourier coefficients of f.

Equivalently, in exponential form,

$f(t)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=-\backslash infty\}^\{+\backslash infty\}\; c\_n\; e^\{i\; \backslash omega\_n\; t\}$

where:

• $c\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{T\}\backslash int\_\{t\_1\}^\{t\_2\}\; f(t)\; e^\{-i\; \backslash omega\_n\; t\}\backslash ,\; dt,$

• $i$ is the imaginary unit, and
• $e^\{i\; \backslash omega\_n\; t\}\; =\; \backslash cos(\backslash omega\_n\; t)\; +\; i\; \backslash sin(\backslash omega\_n\; t)$     in accordance with Euler's formula.

For a formal justification, see Modern derivation of the Fourier coefficients below.

Canonical form

In the special case where the period T = 2π, we have

$\backslash omega\_n\; =\; n\; \backslash ,$

In this case, the Fourier series expansion reduces to a particularly simple form:

$f(t)\; =\; \backslash frac\{a\_0\}\{2\}+\backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}a\_n\; \backslash cos(nt)\; +\; b\_n\; \backslash sin(nt)$

where

• $a\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(t)\; \backslash cos(nt)\backslash ,\; dt$

• $b\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(t)\; \backslash sin(nt)\backslash ,\; dt$

for any positive integer n.

or, equivalently:

$f(t)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=-\backslash infty\}^\{+\backslash infty\}\; c\_n\; e^\{i\; nt\}$

where

• $c\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\; \backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(t)\; e^\{-i\; nt\}\backslash ,\; dt.$

Choice of the form

The form for period T can be easily derived from the canonical one with the change of variable defined by $x=\backslash frac\{2\backslash pi\}\{T\}t$. Therefore, both formulations are equivalent. However, the form for period T is used in most practical cases because it is directly applicable. For the theory, the canonical form is preferred because it is more elegant and easier to interpret mathematically, as will be later seen.

Examples

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Simple Fourier series

Let f be periodic of period $2\backslash pi$, with $f(x)\; =\; x$ for x from −π to π. Note that this function is a periodic version of the identity function.

We will compute the Fourier coefficients for this function.

$a\_n\; \backslash ,$	$=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}f(x)\backslash cos(nx)\backslash ,dx$
	$=\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}x\; \backslash cos(nx)\backslash ,dx$
$a\_n\; \backslash ,$	$=\; 0\; \backslash ,$

$b\_n\; \backslash ,$	$=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}f(x)\backslash sin(nx)\backslash ,dx$
	$=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; x\; \backslash sin(nx)\backslash ,\; dx$
	$=\backslash frac\{2\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{0\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; x\backslash sin(nx)\backslash ,\; dx$
	$=\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash left(\backslash left*\_0^\{\backslash pi\}+\backslash left*\_0^\{\backslash pi\}\backslash right)$
$b\_n\; \backslash ,$	$=2\backslash frac\{(-1)^\{n+1\}\}\{n\}$

Notice that a_n are 0 because the $x\backslash mapsto\; x\backslash cos(nx)$ are odd functions. Hence the Fourier series for this function is:

$f(x)=\backslash frac\{a\_0\}\{2\}\; +\; \backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}\backslash left*$

$=2\backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}\backslash frac\{(-1)^\{n+1\}\}\{n\}\; \backslash sin(nx),\; \backslash quad\; \backslash forall\; x\backslash in*.$

One application of this Fourier series is to compute the value of the Riemann zeta function at s = 2; by Parseval's theorem, we have:

$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\backslash pi\}\; \backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\backslash pi\; x^2\; dx=\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}\backslash sum\_\{n>0\}\backslash left*^2$

which yields: $\backslash sum\_\{n>1\}\backslash frac\{1\}\{n^2\}=\backslash frac\{\backslash pi^2\}\{6\}$.

The wave equation

The wave equation governs the motion of a vibrating string, which may be fastened down at its endpoints. The solution of this problem requires the trigonometric expansion of a general function f that vanishes at the endpoints of an interval x=0 and x=L. The Fourier series for such a function takes the form

$f(x)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}\; b\_n\; \backslash sin\; \backslash left(\; \backslash frac\{n\backslash pi\}\{L\}\; x\; \backslash right)$

where

$b\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{L\}\; \backslash int\_0^L\; f(x)\; \backslash sin\; \backslash left(\; \backslash frac\{n\backslash pi\}\{L\}\; x\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dx.$

Vibrations of air in a pipe that is open at one end and closed at the other are also described by the wave equation. Its solution requires expansion of a function that vanishes at x = 0 and whose derivative vanishes at x=L. The Fourier series for such a function takes the form

$f(x)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\{\backslash infty\}\; b\_n\; \backslash sin\; \backslash left(\; \backslash frac\{(2n\; +1)\backslash pi\}\{2L\}\; x\; \backslash right)$

where

$b\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{2\}\{L\}\; \backslash int\_0^L\; f(x)\; \backslash sin\; \backslash left(\; \backslash frac\{(2n+1)\backslash pi\}\{2L\}\; x\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dx.$

Interpretation: decomposing a movement in rotations

Fourier series have a kinematic interpretation. Indeed, the function $t\backslash mapsto\; f(t)$ can be seen as the movement of an object on a plane (t would then represent time). Since f is complex-valued, we can write

$f(t)=u(t)+i\; v(t).\; \backslash ,$

for real-valued functions u and v. In this form, we can interpret f as a sum of horizontal and vertical translations.

From time $t$ to time $t+dt$, where dt is an very small incremental period, the object moves from the point f as:

$f(t)=\backslash left*+\backslash left*+\backslash cdots+\backslash left*$

$=\backslash int\_0^t\backslash frac\{1\}\{dx\}\backslash left*\backslash ,dx.$

Now instead of seeing f as a sum of infinitesimal translations, we can see it as an infinite sum of rotations of different radii. This interpretation is convenient, in particular when the movement is periodic.

Let $\backslash chi\_n=e^\{ix\}$ be the n-turn per second rotation (of radius 1) (sometimes called character). We want to write f as $f(x)=\backslash sum\; c\_n\; \backslash chi\_n$. We can prove (see mathematical derivation below) that the radii of the rotations (the coefficients $c\_n$) are exactly the ones we gave in the previous paragraph.

For example, the plot of the function $f:t\backslash mapsto\; 2\backslash cos\backslash left(\backslash frac\{t\}\{2\}\backslash right)e^\{\backslash frac\{3\}\{2\}it\}$ is closed, which means the function is periodic. The loop in the curve suggests that it is the sum of two periodic functions, one having a shorter period than the other. Indeed, it can be written: $f(t)=e^\{it\}+e^\{2it\}=\backslash chi\_1(t)+\backslash chi\_2(t)$. All its Fourier coefficients are zero except $c\_1=1$ and $c\_2=1$. The graphical interpretation of a rotation is much harder to do than that of the translations because instead of visually seeing the movement from one point to another we have to add the whole motion for the decomposition to make sense (we are reasoning in rotation frequencies rather than in time).

Mathematically, adopting this point of view is seeing Fourier series as a tool to understand linear operators that commute with translations. The functions $\backslash chi\_n$ are precisely the mutliplicative characters of the group $\backslash mathbb\{R\}/2\backslash pi\backslash mathbb\{Z\}$.

Historical development

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Context

Fourier series are named in honor of Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), who made important contributions to the study of trigonometric series, after preliminary investigations by Madhava, Nilakantha Somayaji, Jyesthadeva, Leonhard Euler, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Daniel Bernoulli. He applied this technique to find the solution of the heat equation, publishing his initial results in 1807 and 1811, and publishing his Théorie analytique de la chaleur in 1822.

From a modern point of view, Fourier's results are somewhat informal, due in no small part to the lack of a precise notion of function and integral in the early nineteenth century (for example, one wondered if a function defined on two intervals with two different formulas was still a function). Later, Dirichlet and Riemann expressed Fourier's results with greater precision and formality.

A revolutionary article

In Fourier's work entitled Mémoire sur la propagation de la chaleur dans les corps solides, on pages 218 and 219, we can read the following :

$\backslash varphi(y)=a\backslash cos\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; y\}\{2\}+a\text{'}\backslash cos\; 3\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; y\}\{2\}+a\text{'}\text{'}\backslash cos5\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; y\}\{2\}+\backslash cdots.$

Multiplying both sides by $\backslash cos(2i+1)\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; y\}\{2\}$, and then integrating from $y=-1$ to $y=+1$ yields:

$a\_i=\backslash int\_\{-1\}^1\backslash varphi(y)\backslash cos(2i+1)\backslash frac\{\backslash pi\; y\}\{2\}\backslash ,dy.$

In these few lines, which are surprisingly close to the modern formalism used in Fourier series, Fourier unwittingly revolutionized both mathematics and physics. Although similar trigonometric series were previously used by Euler, d'Alembert, Daniel Bernoulli and Gauss, Fourier was the first to recognize that such trigonometric series could represent arbitrary functions, even those with discontinuities. It has required many years to clarify this insight, and it has led to important theories of convergence, function space, and harmonic analysis.

The originality of this work was such that when Fourier submitted his paper in 1807, the committee (composed of no lesser mathematicians than Lagrange, Laplace, Malus and Legendre, among others) concluded: ...the manner in which the author arrives at these equations is not exempt of difficulties and that his analysis to integrate them still leaves something to be desired on the score of generality and even rigour.

The birth of harmonic analysis

Since Fourier's time, many different approaches to defining and understanding the concept of Fourier series have been discovered, all of which are mathematically equivalent (and correct), but each of which emphasizes different aspects of the topic. Some of the more powerful and elegant approaches are based on mathematical ideas and tools that were not available at the time Fourier completed his original work. Fourier originally defined the Fourier series for real-valued functions of real arguments, and using the sine and cosine functions as the basis set for the decomposition.

Many other Fourier-related transforms have since been defined, extending to other applications the initial idea of representing any periodic function as a superposition of harmonics. This general area of inquiry is now sometimes called harmonic analysis.

Modern derivation of the Fourier coefficients

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The method used by Fourier to derive the coefficients of the series is very practical and well-suited to the problem he was dealing with (heat propagation). However, this method has since been generalized to a much wider class of problems: writing a function as a sum of periodic functions.

More precisely, if $f:\backslash mathbb\{R\}\backslash rightarrow\backslash mathbb\{C\}$ is a function, we would like to write this function as a sum of trigonometric functions, i.e. $f(x)=\backslash sum\; c\_n\; e^\{inx\}$. We have to restrict our choice of functions in order for this to make sense. First of all, if f has period T, then by changing variables, can study $x\backslash mapsto\; f\backslash left(\backslash frac\{T\}\{2\backslash pi\}x\backslash right)$ which has period $2\backslash pi$. This simplifies notations a lot and allows us to use a canonical (standard) form. We can restrict the study of $x\backslash mapsto\; f\backslash left(\backslash frac\{T\}\{2\backslash pi\}x\backslash right)$ to any interval of length $2\backslash pi$, $*$, say.

We will take the functions $f:\backslash mathbb\{R\}\backslash rightarrow\backslash mathbb\{C\}$ in the set of piecewise continuous, $2\backslash pi$ periodic functions with . Technically speaking, we are in fact taking functions from the Lp space $L^2(\backslash mu)$, where $\backslash mu$ is the standardized Lebesgue measure of the interval ).

Complex Fourier coefficients

We can make $L^2(\backslash mu)$ into a Hilbert space, which is well-suited for orthogonal projections, by defining the scalar product:

$\backslash langle\; f,g\backslash rangle=\backslash int\_\{*\}f\backslash overline\{g\}\backslash ,d\backslash mu=\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\backslash pi\; f(x)\backslash overline\{g(x)\}\backslash ,dx,$

where $\backslash overline\{f(x)\}$ denotes the conjugate of $f(x)$. We will denote by $\backslash |\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash |$ the associated norm.

$E=\backslash \{t\backslash mapsto\; e^\{i\; n\; t\},n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\backslash \}$ is an orthonormal basis of $L^2(\backslash mu)$, which means we can write

$f(x)=\backslash sum\_\{n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\}\backslash left\backslash langle\; f,e^\{i\; n\; t\}\backslash right\backslash rangle\; e^\{i\; n\; x\}.$

We usually define $\backslash forall\; n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\},\; c\_n=\backslash left\backslash langle\; f,e^\{i\; n\; x\}\backslash right\backslash rangle$. These numbers are called complex Fourier coefficients. Their expression is

$c\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash sqrt\{2\backslash pi\}\}\; \backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(x)\; e^\{-i\; n\; x\}\backslash ,dx.\backslash ,$

An equivalent formulation is to write f as a sum of sine and cosine functions.

Real Fourier coefficients

The sum in the previous section is symmetrical around 0: indeed, except for $n=0$, a $c\_\{-n\}$ coefficient corresponds to every $c\_n$ coefficient. This reminds one of the formulae

$\backslash cos(x)=\backslash frac\{e^\{ix\}+e^\{-ix\}\}\{2\}$ and $\backslash sin(x)=\backslash frac\{e^\{ix\}-e^\{-ix\}\}\{2i\}.$

This means we probably can express the sum above with real-valued functions. To do this, we first notice that

$f(x)=\backslash sum\_\{n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\}c\_n\; e^\{i\; n\; x\}=c\_0+\backslash sum\_\{n>0\}\backslash leftn\; x\}+c\_n\; e^\{i\; n\; x\}\backslash right.$

After replacing $c\_n$ by its expression and simplifying the result we get

$f(x)=c\_0+\backslash sum\_\{n>0\}\backslash leftf(t)\backslash cos\backslash left(n\; t\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dt\backslash right)\backslash cos\backslash left(n\; x\backslash right)+\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash left(\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\backslash pi\; f(t)\backslash sin\backslash left(n\; t\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dt\backslash right)\backslash sin\backslash left(n\; x\backslash right)\backslash right.$

If, for a non-negative integer n, we define the real Fourier coefficients $a\_n$ and $b\_n$ by

$a\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(x)\; \backslash cos\backslash left(n\; x\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dx,$

$b\_n\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(x)\; \backslash sin\backslash left(n\; x\backslash right)\backslash ,\; dx,$

we get:

$f(x)=\backslash frac\{a\_0\}\{2\}+\backslash sum\_\{n>0\}\backslash leftx\backslash right)+b\_n\backslash sin\backslash left(n\; x\backslash right)\backslash right.$

Properties

• The following property can be easily derived from Euler's formula: $e^\{ix\}\; =\; \backslash cos\; x\; +\; i\backslash sin\; x\; \backslash !$.

$a\_n=c\_n+c\_\{-n\}\backslash mbox\{,\; \}b\_n=i(c\_n-c\_\{-n\})\backslash mbox\{\; and\; \}c\_n=\backslash frac\{a\_n-ib\_n\}\{2\}$ for all $n$.

• If f is an odd function, then $a\_n=0$ for all $n$ because $f(x)\backslash cos\backslash left(n\backslash pi\backslash frac\{x\}\{T\}\backslash right)$ is then also odd, so its integral on $T$ is zero. If f is an even function, then $b\_n=0$ for a similar reason.

• If f is piecewise continuous, $\backslash lim\_\{n\backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\}c\_n(f)=0$, $\backslash lim\_\{n\backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\}c\_\{-n\}(f)=0$, $\backslash lim\_\{n\backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\}a\_n(f)=0$ and $\backslash lim\_\{n\backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\}b\_n(f)=0$.

• If f is k-times piecewise continuously differentiable, then we can easily compute the Fourier coefficients of $f^\{(k)\}$ given those of f:

$c\_n\backslash left(f^\{(k)\}\backslash right)=(in)^k\; c\_n(f),$

where $f^\{(k)\}$ denotes the kth derivative of f.

• For any positive integer k, if f is C^k − 1 and piecewise C^k, then

$\backslash lim\_\{n\backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\}|n^kc\_n(f)|=0$ because $n^kc\_n(f)=i^\{-k\}c\_n\backslash left(f^\{(k)\}\backslash right)\backslash rightarrow\; 0.$

This means that the sequence $c\_n(f)$ is rapidly decreasing.

General case

Fourier series take advantage of the periodicity of a function f but what if f is periodic in more than one variable, or for that matter, what if f is not periodic? These problems led mathematicians and theoretical physicists to try and define Fourier series on any group G. The advantage of this is that it allows us, for example, to define Fourier series for functions of several variables. Fourier series and Fourier transforms usually used in signal processing then become special cases of this theory and are easier to interpret.

If G is a locally compact Abelian group and $\backslash mathbb\{T\}$ is the unit circle, we can define the dual of $G$ by $\backslash widehat\{G\}=\backslash \{\backslash chi:G\backslash rightarrow\backslash mathbb\{T\}\backslash mbox\{\; homomorphism\}\backslash \}$. This is the set of rotations on the unit circle and its elements are called characters. We can define a scalar product $\backslash langle\backslash cdot,\backslash cdot\backslash rangle$ on with respect to this scalar product. Let $f:G\backslash rightarrow\backslash mathbb\{C\}$. The Fourier coefficients of f are defined by: $\backslash widehat\{f\}(\backslash chi)=\backslash langle\; f,\backslash chi\backslash rangle$ and we have $f(g)=\backslash int\_\backslash widehat\{G\}\backslash widehat\{f\}(\backslash chi)\backslash chi(g)\backslash ,d\backslash chi$. If the group is discrete, then the integral reduces to an ordinary sum.

For example, the Fourier series of this article are obtained by taking $G=\backslash mathbb\{R\}/2\backslash pi\backslash mathbb\{Z\}$. We get

$\backslash widehat\{G\}=\backslash \{\backslash chi\_n:t\backslash mapsto\; e^\{i\; n\; t\},\; n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\backslash \}$

and

$c\_n(f)\; =\; \backslash widehat\{f\}(\backslash chi\_n)\; =\; \backslash int\_G\; f(g)\backslash overline\{\backslash chi(g)\}\backslash ,dg\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\; \backslash pi\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\{\backslash pi\}\; f(t)\; e^\{-i\; nt\}\backslash ,dt.$

Periodic functions in n dimensions can be defined on an n-dimensional torus (the function taking a value at each point on the torus). Such a torus is defined by $\backslash mathbb\{T\}^n=\backslash mathbb\{R\}^n/(2\backslash pi\backslash mathbb\{Z\})^n$. For $n=1$ we get a circle, for $n=2$ the cartesian product of two circles, i.e. a torus in the usual sense. Choosing $G=\backslash mathbb\{T\}^n$ gives the corresponding Fourier series.

Approximation and convergence of Fourier series

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Definition of a Fourier series

Let $\backslash chi\_n(x)=e^\{in\backslash pi\; \backslash frac\{x\}\{T\}\}$. We call Fourier series of the function f the series $\backslash sum\; c\_n\; \backslash chi\_n$. For any positive integer N, we call $f\_N(x)=\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^Nc\_n\; \backslash chi\_n(x)$ the N-th partial sum of the Fourier series of this function.

Approximation with the partial sums

Say we want to find the best approximation of f using only the functions $\backslash chi\_n$ for n from $-N$ to N. Let $\backslash mathcal\{T\}\_N=\backslash left\backslash \{p=\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^N\; x\_n\; \backslash chi\_n,\; x\_n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{C\}\backslash right\backslash \}$. We are trying to find coefficients $(x\_\{-N\},\backslash dots,x\_\{N\})$ such that $\backslash |f-p\backslash |$ is minimum (where $\backslash |\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash |$ denotes the norm).

We have $\backslash |f-p\backslash |^2=\backslash |f\backslash |^2-2\backslash mbox\{Re\}\backslash langle\; f,p\backslash rangle+\backslash |p\backslash |^2$, where Re(z) denotes the real part of z.

$\backslash langle\; f,p\backslash rangle=\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^N\backslash overline\{x\_n\}\backslash langle\; f,\backslash chi\_n\backslash rangle.$

Parseval's theorem (which can be derived independently from Fourier series) gives us

$\backslash |p\backslash |^2=\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^N|x\_n|^2.$

By definition, $c\_n=\backslash langle\; f,\backslash chi\_n\backslash rangle$; therefore

$\backslash |f-p\backslash |^2=\backslash |f\backslash |^2+\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^N\backslash left*.$

It is clear that this expression is minimum for $x\_n=c\_n$ and for this value only.

This means that there is one and only one $f\_N\backslash in\backslash mathcal\{T\}\_N$ such that

$\backslash |f-f\_N\backslash |=\backslash min\_\{p\backslash in\backslash mathcal\{T\}\_N\}\backslash left\backslash \{\backslash |f-p\backslash |,p\backslash in\backslash mathcal\{T\}\_N\backslash right\backslash \},$

it is given by

$f\_N(x)=\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^N\; c\_n\; \backslash chi\_n(x),$

where

$c\_n=\backslash frac\{1\}\{2T\}\backslash int\_\{-T\}^T\; f(t)\backslash chi\_\{-n\}(t)\backslash ,dt.$

This means that the best approximation of f we can make using only the functions $\backslash chi\_n(x)=e^\{in\backslash pi\; \backslash frac\{x\}\{T\}\}$ for n from $-N$ to N is precisely the Nth partial sum of the Fourier series. An illustration of this is given on the animated plot of example 1.

Convergence

While the Fourier coefficients a_n and b_n can be formally defined for any function for which the integrals make sense, whether the series so defined actually converges to f(x) depends on the properties of f.

The simplest answer is that if f is square-integrable then

$\backslash lim\_\{N\backslash rightarrow\backslash infty\}\backslash int\_\{-\backslash pi\}^\backslash pi\backslash left|f(x)-\backslash sum\_\{n=-N\}^\{N\}$

c_n\,\chi_n(x)\right|^2\,dx=0.

This is convergence in the norm of the space L², which means that the series converges almost everywhere to f.

There are many known tests that ensure that the series converges at a given point x, for example, if the function is differentiable at x. Even a jump discontinuity does not pose a problem: if the function has left and right derivatives at x, then the Fourier series will converge to the average of the left and right limits (but see Gibbs phenomenon). However, a fact that many find surprising, is that the Fourier series of a continuous function need not converge pointwise.

This unpleasant situation is counter-balanced by a theorem by Dirichlet which states that if f is $2T$-periodic and piecewise continuously differentiable function, then its Fourier series converges pointwise and $\backslash sum\_\{n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\}\; c\_n\; \backslash chi\_n(x)=\backslash frac\{f(x^+)+f(x^-)\}\{2\}$, where $f(x^+)=\backslash lim\_\{t\backslash rightarrow\; x,\; t>x\}\; f(x)$ and f is continuous as well as piecewise continuously differentiable, then the Fourier series converges in norm and hence converges uniformly.

In 1922, Andrey Kolmogorov published an article entitled Une série de Fourier-Lebesgue divergente presque partout in which he gave an example of a Lebesgue-integrable function whose Fourier series diverges almost everywhere. This function is not in $L^2(\backslash mu)$.

Plancherel's and Parseval's theorems

Another important property of the Fourier series is the Plancherel theorem. Let $f,g\backslash in\; L^2(\backslash mu)$ and $c\_n(f),\; c\_n(g)$ be the corresponding complex Fourier coefficients. Then

$\backslash sum\_\{n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\}\; c\_n(f)\backslash overline\{c\_n(g)\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2T\}\; \backslash int\_\{-T\}^T\; f(x)\backslash overline\{g(x)\}\backslash ,dx$

where $\backslash overline\{z\}$ denotes the conjugate of z.

Parseval's theorem, a special case of the Plancherel theorem, states that:

$\backslash sum\_\{n\backslash in\backslash mathbb\{Z\}\}\; |c\_n(f)|^2\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2T\}\; \backslash int\_\{-T\}^T\; |f(x)|^2\; \backslash ,dx$

which can be restated with the real Fourier coefficients:

$\backslash frac\{a\_0^2\}\{4\}\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}\; \backslash sum\_\{n=1\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash left(\; a\_n^2\; +\; b\_n^2\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2T\}\; \backslash int\_\{-T\}^T\; |f(x)|^2\backslash ,\; dx.$

These theorems may be proven using the orthogonality relationships. They can be interpreted physically by saying that writing a signal as a Fourier series does not change its energy.

See also

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• Fourier transform
• Harmonic analysis
• Gibbs phenomenon
• Sturm-Liouville theory

References

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• 2003 unabridged republication of the 1878 English translation by Alexander Freeman of Fourier's work Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur, originally published in 1822.

• Yitzhak Katznelson, An introduction to harmonic analysis, Second corrected edition. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1976. ISBN 0486633314

• Felix Klein, Development of mathematics in the 19th century. Mathsci Press Brookline, Mass, 1979. Translated by M. Ackerman from Vorlesungen uber die Entwicklung der Matematik im 19 Jahrhundert, Springer, Berlin, 1928.

• Walter Rudin, Principles of mathematical analysis, Third edition. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1976. ISBN 007054235X

• William E. Boyce and Richard C. DiPrima, Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems, Eighth edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2005. ISBN 0471433381

External links

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• Java applet shows Fourier series expansion of an arbitrary function

• Example problems - Examples of computing Fourier Series

• Fourier series explanation - A simple, non-mathematical approach

• Joseph Fourier - A site on Fourier's life which was used for the historical section of this article

Fourier analysis | Fourier series | Mathematical series

Sèrie de Fourier | Fourierovy řady | Fourierreihe | Serie de Fourier | Série de Fourier | 푸리에 급수 | Serie di Fourier | טור פורייה | Furjė eilutė | Fourierreeks | フーリエ級数 | Szereg Fouriera | Série de Fourier | Ряд Фурье | Fourierov rad | Fourier'n sarja | Fourier-serie | อนุกรมฟูริเยร์ | Chuỗi Fourier | 傅里叶级数