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The First Sino–Japanese War (; Japanese: 日清戦争 Romaji: Nisshin Sensou) (August 1 1894 - April 1895) was a war fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan over control of Korea. The principal result was a shift in regional dominance in Asia from China to Japan.

Genesis of the war

Korea, under the Joseon Dynasty, had traditionally been a tributary state to China's Qing Dynasty. In 1875, after exerting pressure, China allowed Japan to recognize Korea as an independent state. However, China continued to assert influence over Korea, despite Japan's moves to dominate it. Public opinion in Korea was split, with conservatives wanting to retain a traditional relationship with China, while reformists wanted the country to establish closer ties with Japan and modernize.

Following the assassination of a pro-Japanese reformist in 1894, a Korean religious sect, the Donghak, launched the Donghak Peasant Revolution. The Korean government requested help from China in suppressing the rebellion. The Chinese government informed the Japanese government of its decision to send troops to the Korean peninsula. This is in accordance with the Sino-Japanese Convention of Tientsin of 1885 in which the two sides agreed to: (a) pull their expeditionary forces out of Korea simultaneously; (b) not send military instructors for the training of the Korean army; and (c) notify the other side beforehand should one decide to send troops to Korea. Implicit in this arrangement was that any troops so deployed were to be withdrawn as soon as possible (a logical corollary to clause b).

Early stages of the war

In early 1894, Yuan Shikai, a plenipotentiary from China, entered Korea with a sizable body of troops upon the request of the Emperor of Korea to suppress the rebellion. For its part, Japan was ready for any suitable opportunity to invade. When Yuan Shikai retained troops at the request of the Koreans, the Japanese government sent an expeditionary force about three times the size of the Chinese. This force subsequently seized the emperor and occupied the Royal Palace in Seoul by June 1894. In an effort to increase its influence, the Japanese government established a puppet government. This was rejected by the Chinese, who still regarded Korea as a dependent country. The new Korean government then granted the Japanese the right to expel Chinese troops.

A short, victorious war for Japan

War between China and Japan was officially declared on August 1, 1894, though some naval fighting had already taken place. The modern Japanese army defeated the poorly-equipped Chinese in a series of battles around Seoul and Pyongyang, forcing them north, and by November 21 had taken the Chinese city of Lüshun (aka Port Arthur to westerners, now known as Lüshunkou, literally Lüshun Port) at the tip of the Liaodong Peninsula. It was alleged in some contemporary newspapers that the Japanese army massacred thousands of the city's Chinese inhabitants, an event that came to be called the Port Arthur Massacre. Most notable among the reports of a massacre were the dispatches of James Creelman of the New York World, although equally prestigous newspapers such as the New York Times claimed that such an event never took place, and accused Creelman of yellow journalism.

The Japanese navy devastated Qing's Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River at the Battle of Yalu on September 17, 1894. The Chinese fleet having lost 8 out of 12 warships, retreated behind the fortifications of the Weihai naval base, and was soon caught by surprise when Japanese troops stationed at Port Arthur on the opposite Liaodong Peninsula outflanked the harbor's defenses. The unexpected attack led to shelling and the destruction of the ships in the harbour. After Weihaiwei's fall on February 2 and an easing of harsh winter conditions, Japanese troops pressed into Manchuria.

Aftermath of the war

Faced with these repeated defeats, China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki in April, 1895, agreeing to stay out of Korea and ceding a large portion of eastern Manchuria, including the Liaodong (literally: Eastern Liaoning) portion of the modern Liaoning province, to Japan. Additionally, the island of Taiwan (Formosa) was also conceded to the Japanese. Chinese defeat at the hands of Japan highlighted the failure of the Qing army to modernize and resulted in increased calls within China for accelerated reform. It also encouraged imperialist demands laid on the dynasty by western powers, particularly Britain, France, Germany, and Russia. For example, Russia, after the diplomatic slap in the face given to Japan in the Triple Intervention after the war, moved almost immediately to occupy the entire Liaodong Peninsula and, especially to fortify Port Arthur despite vigorous protests from China, Japan, and the United States — all three favoring an Open Door Policy in Manchuria.

Historian Frank Theiss relates how the Chinese diplomat "Li Hongzhang pleaded with the Russians to lease the territory at least to save face for the Chinese" about the Liaodong (then Kwantung or Liaotung) de jure negotiations by at least signing a treaty (already in de facto control). He adds: "Russia consented to lease the Kwantung peninsula, but it actually amounted to annexation." France and Germany also took advantage of the weakened Chinese state, and gained port and trade concessions soon after the war's end. The Shandong Province was especially affected, being along the coast opposite Port Arthur. Qingdao was ceded to Germany in 1897, and Weihai, with some territory called Weihaiwei, to Britain in 1898.

The degree to which Western powers were emboldened can be inferred by examining the actions of the powers in the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), where they all but fell over each other in the rush to blame the Qing government for the rebellion of the resentful Chinese population. The result was further humiliating concessions from the by-then moribund Chinese Empire.

Reasons for the Qing defeat

The Japanese government undertook many political reforms, such as the Meiji constitution, a naval construction program and effective modernization of both its army and navy. Japan had sent hordes of diplomatic and military officials abroad, imported French and German advisors for their army after evaluating the relative strengths of European armies, and did the same for the navy with British and American advisors. Many of her newer ships were built in British, French and German shipyards. After the Triple Intervention she did even more of this cultural importation, to the eventual shock and dismay of the Imperial Russian court.

The Qing followed traditional policies, feeling secure in the strength of superior numbers. The Chinese had failed to create a national army or navy. The army was still segregated into Manchu, Mongol, Muslim and Han Chinese armies. The Han armies were further divided into largely independent regional armies. There was no unified command and Chinese fighting was often consequently poor. During the war, most of the fighting was done by the Beiyang Army and Beiyang Fleet while pleas calling for help from other Chinese navies were ignored. The system was plagued with corruption as well: politicians had systematically embezzled funds from the Chinese Navy, even during the war. For example, in the middle of the Battle of Yalu, many units of the Qing navy ran out of gunpowder, and were sunk while defenseless and trying to flee. Logistics were a huge problem for the Chinese as construction of a railroad through Manchuria to Korea had been discouraged and not finished by 1894. Morale of the Chinese armies was generally very low due to lack of pay and prestige which led to some rather ignominious withdrawals, such as the abandonment of the very well fortified and defensible Weihaiwei.

Chronicle of the war

Genesis of the war

June 1, 1894 : The rebellion army, having conquered the capital of the Korean province of Jeollado, moved towards Seoul. The Korean government requested help from the Chinese (Qing) government to suppress the rebellion force.

June 6, 1894: The Chinese government informed the Japanese government under the obligation of Convention of Tientsin of its military operation. About 2,465 Chinese soldiers were transported to Korea within days.

June 8, 1894: Korea's Foreign Minister failed to stop Japan from sending troops to Korea. Around 4,000 Japanese soldiers and 500 marines landed in Korea between June 8 and June 10.

June 11, 1894: A peace treaty was signed by the rebels and the Korean government. The rebellion ended.

June 13, 1894: Japanese government telegraphed Keisuke Ootori (大鳥圭介), Commander of Japanese Forces in Korea, to remain in Korea for as long as possible despite the end of the rebellion.

June 16, 1894: Mutsu Munemitsu (陸奥宗光), Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs, met with Wang Fengzao (汪鳳藻), Chinese ambassador to Japan, to discuss the future status of Korea. Wang stated that Chinese government intended to pull out of Korea after the rebellion had been suppressed and expected Japanese troops to do so the same.

June 22, 1894: Japan refused to pull out, sending reinforcements to "protect Japanese interests in Korea". Munemitsu informed Wang of this decision, which was known as "Japan's first breach in contact with China".

July 03, 1894: Ootori proposed a project for reform of the Korean political system, which was rejected by the Korean government.

July 07, 1894: Chinese and Japanese diplomats failed to reach an agreement on pulling out of Korea after a series of meetings arranged by the British ambassador to China.

Early stage of the war (on Korean soil)

July 19, 1894: Japan decided to wage war against China. The Joint Fleet was established, consisting of almost all vessels in the Japanese Imperial Navy.

July 23, 1894: Japanese troops entered Seoul and seized the Korean Emperor. A puppet government was established under Japanese influence and terminated all Sino-Korean treaties. It also granted the Japanese Army the right to expel Chinese troops stationed in Korea.

July 25, 1894 : The first cannon balls were fired in a naval engagement between the Japanese Joint Fleet and Chinese transporters carrying the reinforcement, sinking two vessels in the Chinese Beiyang Fleet including a leased British transporter. Japanese troops advanced to the Chinese army's front in Asan.

Aug. 1, 1894: China and Japan declared war on each other.

Sept. 15, 1894: Fighting broke out between China and Japan near Pyongyang.

Sept. 17, 1894: The Battle of Yalu took place between the Chinese and Japanese navies. It was the main naval engagement during the war.

Sino-Japanese War on Chinese soil

Oct. 24, 1894: The Japanese First Army, under the command of Aritomo Yamagata (山県有朋), invaded Manchuria (Northeastern part of China).

Nov. 21, 1894: Japanese troops took Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) and killed 18,000 civilians in the city, leaving only 36 alive to dig graves for the dead.

Jan. 1, 1895: Chinese navy was annihilated in the Battle of the Weihaiwei.

Aftermath of the war

April 17, 1895: Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed by Japan and China. China ceded the Liaotung peninsula (the southern portion of Fengtian, modern Liaoning province), the islands of Taiwan (Formosa), and the Pescadores to Japan. China also paid Japan a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels.

May 12, 1895: Taiwan declared independence in opposition to its cession to Japan.

May, 28, 1895: Japanese expedition landed on Taiwan and the Republic of Formosa was terminated. Taiwan and its affiliated islands weren't returned to China until the end of the World War II.

Oct. 8, 1895: Empress Myeongseong of Korea was assassinated by Japanese agents, who were arrested but later released by the Japanese government. (Korean: 명성황후, Japanese: 閔妃, ).

See also

References

  • Chamberlin, William Henry. Japan Over Asia, 1937, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 395 pp.
  • Colliers (Ed.), The Russo-Japanese War, 1904, P.F. Collier & Son, New York, 129 pp.
  • Lone, Stewart. Japan's First Modern War: Army and Society in the Conflict with China, 1894-1895, 1994, St. Martin's Press, New York, 222 pp.
  • Paine, S.C.M. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895: Perception, Power, and Primacy, 2003, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, 412 pp.
  • Sedwick, F.R. (R.F.A.). The Russo-Japanese War, 1909, The Macmillan Company, NY, 192 pp.
  • Theiss, Frank. The Voyage of Forgotten Men, 1937, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1st Ed., Indianapolis & New York, 415 pp.
  • Warner, Dennis and Peggy. The Tide At Sunrise, 1974, Charterhouse, New York, 659 pp.

  • Military Heritage did an editorial on the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 (Brooke C. Stoddard, Military Heritage, December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3, p.6).

External links

History of Korea | Wars of China | Wars of Japan

Китайско-японска война (1894-1895) | Erster Japanisch-Chinesischer Krieg | Primera Guerra Sino-japonesa | Guerre sino-japonaise (1894-1895) | 청일 전쟁 | Peperangan Jiawu | מלחמת סין-יפן הראשונה | Kinų - japonų karai | Eerste Chinees-Japanse Oorlog | 日清戦争 | Første kinesisk-japanske krig | Японо-китайская война 1894—1895 | Kiinan-Japanin sota (1894-1895) | Första sino-japanska kriget | 甲午戰爭

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "First Sino-Japanese War".

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