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The Emperor of China or Huángdì (皇帝) was the head of government and head of state of China from the Qin Dynasty in 221 BC until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912, with brief interruptions in 1915 and 1917. The pre-Qin heads of the government were called Wang (roughly translated as King). Before the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, the characters Huang ("godking") and Di ("sage king") were used separately and never consecutively (See Three Huang and five Di). After the Han Dynasty, Huangdi began to be abbreviated to Huang or Di—the two characters had lost their original pre-Qin meanings.
Position and power
Since the Qin Dynasty, the Emperor of China has been formally styled the Son of Heaven (天子), and as the descendant and representative of heaven on earth, legally has the absolute power over all matters, big or small, under heaven. The Emperor's words and directives are considered Sacred Edicts (聖旨). In theory, the Emperor's orders are followed with immediate obedience. He is elevated above all commoners, nobility, and members of the imperial family. Address to the Emperor is always to be formal and self-deprecatory, often even with the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the Emperor varied between different Emperors and different Chinese dynasties. Many Emperors ruled as absolute monarchs with an iron fist on the country. A prominent example is Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. Other Emperors, however, have found the Empress Dowager, court officials, eunuchs, and nobility taking over actual power (ex. Wanli Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Guangxu Emperor of the Qing Dynasty).
Heredity and succession
The title of Emperor was transmitted from father to son. By convention in most Han Chinese-ruled dynasties, the eldest son born to the Empress of China (嫡長子) succeeds the throne. In some cases when the Empress did not bear any children, she could adopt a son as her own and the son is subsequently made heir (although all children of the Emperor are said to also be the children of the Empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the Empress's eldest son was disputed, and because many Emperors had large numbers of progeny, often led to wars of succession between rival sons. In attempts to resolve disputes after death, the Emperor often designated a Crown Prince (太子) in early times. Even such a clear designation, however, caused problems within the imperial family involving jealousy and distrust, whether it was the Crown Prince plotting against the Emperor, or brothers plotting against each other, and further does not actually ensure a peaceful succession. Some Emperors, like the Kangxi Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike the Emperor of Japan, Chinese political theory (See Mandate of Heaven) allowed for a change in Dynasty and an Emperor could be replaced by a rebel leader. Prominent examples include the first Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Era), and Hong Xiuquan, leader of the Taiping Rebellion, who ruled with the title Heavenly King. As the Emperor usually has a large number of sons, it was generally not possible for a female to succeed to the throne. In the history of China there has only been one lawful reigning Empress, the Empress Wu of the Tang dynasty. Many females, however, have come to become de facto leaders, usually as the Empress Dowager. Prominent examples include the Empress Dowager Cixi, mother of the Tongzhi Emperor and adoptive mother of the Guangxu Emperor, ruling China for 47 years (1861-1908), and the Empress Dowager Lü of the Han Dynasty.
Styles, names and forms of address
To see naming conventions in detail, please refer to Chinese sovereign
As the Emperor has, by law, a high position challenged by no one else, his subjects are to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether it includes direct conversation or otherwise. In a conversation with the Emperor, it is considered a crime to compare oneself to the Emperor in any way. It is taboo to refer to the Emperor by his given name, even if it is from his own mother, who uses Huangdi (Emperor), or "Er" (simply "son"). The Emperor is never to be addressed "you". The Emperor addresses himself as Zhen (朕) in front of his subjects. Anyone speaking to the Emperor is to address him as Bixia (陛下), translated as "Your Imperial Majesty"; Huang Shang (皇上, lit. Emperor Above or Emperor Highness), Wan Sui (萬歲, lit. Ten thousand years), or Sheng Shang (聖上, lit. the Divine Above or the Holy Highness). Servants often address the Emperor as Wan Sui Ye (萬歲爺, lit. Lord of Ten Thousand Years). In English all these forms of address are roughly translated as Your Imperial Majesty. Be warned that Wan Sui (萬歲, lit. Ten thousand years) is what the emperor's subjects will say when bowing at the start of each day's court, when the emperor discusses the nation's problems.
Contrary to western convention of referring to a sovereign using a reign name (ex. George V), sometimes the sovereign's personal name (Queen Victoria), a governing Emperor is to be simply referred to as Huang-di Bi-xia (皇帝陛下 lit. His Majesty the Emperor) or Dang-jin Huang-shang (當今皇上 lit. The Imperial Highness of the Present Time) when speaking in third person. He is usually styled His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great * Dynasty, Son of Heaven, Lord of Ten Thousand Years. His styles varied considerably during the Yuan and Qing Dynasties.
An Emperor rules with a reign title (年號). Up until the Ming Dynasty, the sovereign had conventionally changed the reign title on a semi-regular basis during his reign. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Emperors simply chose one reign title to last for that entire reign, and people often referred to past Emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties the Emperors were known with a Temple name (廟號) given after their death. All Emperors are all given a Posthumous name (謚號), which are sometimes combined with the Temple name to refer to an Emperor (ex. Shengzu-Ren-Emperor 聖祖仁皇帝 for Kangxi). Da-xing Huangdi (大行皇帝) is used to refer to an Emperor that had just died. The passing of an Emperor is referred to as Jia-beng (駕崩), literally meaning "collapse".
Family
The Emperor's family, termed the Imperial Family, is made up of the Emperor as the head, the Empress (皇后) as the primary consort, leader of the harem, and Mother of the Nation (國母). In addition, the Emperor has a series of other consorts and concubines (妃嬪) divided in a system of ranks that make up the harem. Although the Emperor has the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent the mother of an Emperor, i.e. the Empress Dowager (皇太后), usually receives the greatest respect in the palace, and is the decision maker in most family affairs, and at times, especially when a young Emperor is on the throne, becomes the de facto ruler. The Emperor's children, the Princes (王子) and Princesses (公主), are often called with their order of birth, i.e. Eldest Prince, Third Princess. The Princes are often given titles of peerage once they reach adulthood. The Emperor's brothers and uncles serve in court by law with the status of any other court officials (臣子), and the Emperor is always elevated above despite chronological or generational superiority of another person in the family when in court.
See also
"Emperor of China"