Confronting Philip

First Philippic and the Olynthiacs (351 BC-349 BC)

Main articles: First Philippic, Olynthiacs Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II. Since 357 BC, when Philip seized Amphipolis, Athens was formally in a state of war against the King of Macedon. In 352 BC Demosthenes characterized Philip as the very worst enemy of his city,Demosthenes, Against Aristocrates, 121 hinting at the ensuing fierce attacks against him. A year later he criticized those dismissing Philip as a person of no account and warned them that he is as dangerous as the King of Persia.Demosthenes, For the Liberty of the Rhodians, 24 In 352 the Athenian troops opposed successfully Philip at Thermopylae,Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 319 but the Macedonian victory over the Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook the orator. The theme of the First Philippic (351 BC-350 BC) was preparedness and the reform of the theoric fund, a mainstay of Eubulus' policy..

"And a despotism, I take it, is as a rule mistrusted by free constitutions, especially when they are near neighbors. "

Demosthenes (''First Olynthiac, 5)

From this moment and until 341 BC the orations of Demosthenes are all referred to the same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349 BC Philip attacked Olynthus, an ally of Athens at the time. In the three Olynthiacs Demosthenes criticized his compratiots for being idleDemosthenes, Second Olynthiac, 3and urged Athens to help OlynthusDemosthenes, First Olynthiac, 3. He also insulted Philip, characterizing him as a "barbarian". Despite Demosthenes' warnings, The Athenians engaged in a useless war in EuboeaDemosthenes, On the Peace, 5 and offered no military support to Olynthus.

Peace of Philocrates (349 BC-345 BC)

In 348 BC Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground.Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 56 After the subjugation of the whole federation of Chalcis, Athenians aimed at a peace agreement with the Kingdom of Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who orientated themselves towards a compromise. In 348 another peculiar event occurred: Meidias, a wealthy Athenian, slapped in public Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the Greater Dionysia. Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in Euboea. Demosthenes wrote the judicial oration Against Meidias, which he probably never pronounced. Demosthenes retired his accusation probably for political reasonsH. Weil, Bioraphy of Demothenes, 28 although Aeschines maintained that Demosthenes received money to drop the case.Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 52

In 347 an Athenian delegation, comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to Pella to negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed.Aeschines, The Speech on the Embassy, 34 Philip imposed his own harsh terms that ecclesia officially accepted. Nevertheless, when an Athenian delegation travelled to Pella to put Philip under oath for the final conclusion of the treaty, the King of Macedon was campaigning abroad.Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 15 He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian possessions which he might seize before the ratification.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 25-27 Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should repair to the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay. Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in Macedonia, until Philip successfully concluded his excursion in Thrace.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 30 Finally, peace was sworn in Pherae, but Demosthenes accused the other envoys of venality.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 31 Just after the conclusion of the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis,Demosthenes,On the Crown, 36 which was not helped by Athens.Demosthenes, On the Peace, 10 Supported by Thebes and Thessaly,Demosthenes, On the Crown, 43 Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the Amphictyonic League. Despite some loose reactions,Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 111-113 Athens finally legitimated Philip's entrance into the Council of the League. Demosthenes was among those who recommended this stance in his oration On the Peace.

Second and Third Philippic (344 BC-341 BC)

Main articles: Second Philippic, On the Chersonese, Third Philippic

In 344 BC Demosthenes barnstormed Peloponnese,Demosthenes,Second Philippic, 19 in order to detach as many cities as possible from Macedon's influence. Nonetheless, his mission mainly failed. Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances.T. Buckley, Aspects of Greek History 750-323 BC, 480 In response to these complaints, Demosthenes delivered the Second Philippic, a vehement attack against Philip. In 343 BC Demosthenes delivered On the False Embassy, assaulting Aeschines who faced a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by a jury with a difference of thirty votes.

"And, by Heaven, that is what I certainly fear will be your experience, when you count your chances and discover that there is nothing left for you to do. And yet I pray, Athenians, that such may not be the issue of events. Better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip and abandon any of your loyal counsellors."

Demosthenes (''Third Philippic, 68)

In 343 BC the Macedonian arms were carried across Epirus and a year later Philip campaigned in Thrace.Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 17 He also imposed an amendment of the Peace of Philocrates in his favor.Demosthenes, On Halonnesus, 18 When the Macedonian army approached Chersonese, an Athenian general named Diopeithes ravaged the maritime district of Thrace, an offensive resulting in Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, ecclesia convened. Demosthenes delivered On the Chersonese and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Within the same year, he delivered the Third Philippic, considered the best of his political orations.K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 245 Demosthenes soon became the suzerain of the Athenian politics and devitilized the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

In 341 BC Demosthenes managed to draw Byzantium and Abydos in an alliance with Athens, triggering Philip's hatred. The Athenians disallowed Philip's grievances and denounced the peace treaty, an action equivalent to an official declaration of war. In 339 BC Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer south Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in the Amphictyonic Council.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 149 During a meeting of the Council, Philip accused the Amfissian Locrians of intruding on consecrated ground.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 150 The presiding of the Council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon the Locrians.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 151 Aeschines agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in the Congress. Demosthenes reversed, however, Aeschines' initiatives and, thereby, Athens abstained.C. Carey, Aeschines, 12-14 After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the Amphictyonic Council authorized Philip to lead a second excursion, electing him as commander-in-chief.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 152 Philip responded without delay; the winter of 339 BC-338 BC he passed Thermopylae and attacked the Locrians. His victory was absolute, but Philip did not stop in Amfissa; he entered Phocis in 338 BC, seized Elateia and began to restore its fortifications.

"You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your public performances and also in your public abstinences. A project approved by the people is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettable incident is reported. Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an old sprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins to be active."

Demosthenes (''On the Crown, 198)

Athens formed an alliance, encompassing Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth and Acarnania. Thebes, however, constituted the most desirable ally. Thereby, delegations from both Macedon and Athens arrived simultaneously in Thebes, but Demosthenes, who led the Athenian envoys, managed to convince the Thebans.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 153 Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, we ignore his convincing argumentation. While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies, proposing in vain a new peace treaty.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 20 After a few trivial brushes, which resulted in unimportant Athenian victories, Philip drew his opponents in Chaeronea, where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite. Such was Philip's hate for Demosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus, the King after his victory was jeering at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon, are you not ashamed to act the part of Thersites (an obscene soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War) ?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.Diodorus, Library, XVI 87

Last political initiatives and death

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Confronting Alexander and delivering On the Crown

Philip inflicted a stringent punishment upon Thebes but was indulgent towards Athens. He actually proposed a new peace treaty, whose the terms were quite favorable for the defeated party. Demosthenes prompted the fortification of AthensDemosthenes, On the Crown, 299 and was chosen by ecclesia to deliver the Funeral Oration.Demosthenes, On the Crown, 285 In 337 BC, Philip created the League of Corinth, a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella. In 336 BC Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood making thank-offerings, violating all decency". Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising and sent envoys to Attalus, an ostensible internal opponent of Alexander. Nonetheless, when the Athenians learned that Alexander whizzed to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon for mercy. Alexander admonished them and imposed no punishment. The next year, Alexander engaged the Thracians and the Illyrians. While he was campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again, believing in the rumors that Alexander was dead. Darius III of Persia financed the Greek cities that rose up against Macedon and Demosthenes is said to have received about 300 talents on behalf of Athens and to have faced accusations of embezzlement. Alexander razed, however, Thebes to the ground. He did not attack Athens but demanded the exile of all the anti-Macedonian politicians, Demosthenes first of all, a request turned down by ecclesia.Plutarch, Phocion, 17

"There are two traits, men of Athens, that mark the disposition of the well-meaning citizen;--that is a description I may apply to myself without offence. When in power, the constant aim of his policy should be the honor and the ascendancy of his country; and on every occasion and in all business he should preserve his loyalty. That virtue depends on his natural disposition: ability and success depend upon other considerations. "

Demosthenes (''On the Crown, 321)

Despite the unsuccessful ventures against Philip and Alexander, the Athenians still respected Demosthenes. In 336 BC the orator Ctesiphon proposed that Athens honor Demosthenes for his services to the city. This proposal became a political issue and in 330 BC on legal irregularities Aeschines prosecuted Ctesiphon. In his most brilliant speechK. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 301 and The Helios On the Crown Demosthenes effectively defended Ctesiphon and attacked vehemently those who would have preferred peace with Macedon. He finally defeated Aescines, although his ennemy legally was probably in the right on his main objections to the crowning.A. Duncan, Performance and Identity in the Classical World, 70

Case of Harpalus

In 324 BC Harpalus, to whom Alexander had entrusted huge treasures, had absconded and found refuge in Athens. Demosthenes at first gave advice to chase him out of the city.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 25 Finally, Harpalus was imprisoned despite Hypereides' dissent.Hypereides, Against Demosthenes, 1 Ecclesia after a proposal of Demosthenes decided the guarding of Harpalus' money, which were entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes himself. When the committee counted the money, they found half the money Harpalus had declared he had. Nevertheless, they decided not to disclose the deficit. When Harpalus escaped, Hypereides accused Demosthenes of not disclosing the huge deficit. The orator was fined and imprisoned, but he soon escaped.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 26 It remains unclear whether the accusations against him were just or not. In any case, the Athenians soon repealed the sentence.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 31

After Alexander's death in 323 BC Demosthenes again urged the Athenians to gain independence from Macedonian control in what is known as the Lamian War. Alexander's successor, Antipater, quelled, however, all opposition and demanded that the Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides among others. Following his request, ecclesia adopted a decree condemning the most prominent anti-Macedonian politicians to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of Calauria, where he was later discovered by Archias, a confident of Antipater. The orator committed suicide before his capture. He took the poison out of a reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his familly.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 29 When Demosthenes perceived that the poison had pierced and seized his vitals, he said to Archias: "Now, as soon as you please you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast out this body of mine unburied. But, O gracious Neptune, I, for my part, while I am yet alive, arise up and depart out of this sacred place; though Antipater and the Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted." After he had thus spoken, he passed by the altar, he fell down and died. Years after Demosthenes' suicide, the Athenians erected a statue to honor him and decreed nourishment to be given to his descendants in the Prytaneum.Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes, 14

Assessments

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Political career

Plutarch lauded Demosthenes for not being of a fickle disposition. Rebuting Theopompus, the biographer insisted that for "the same party and post in politics which he held from the beginning, to these he kept constant to the end; and was so far from leaving them while he lived, that he chose rather to forsake his life than his purpose".Plutarch, Demosthenes, 15 On the other hand, Polybius reprehended Demosthenes' policies. He accused him of having launched a bitter charge at the most illustrious Greeks, which would not deserve the name of traitor. The historian maintained that Demosthenes measured everything by the interests of his own city, imagining that all the Greeks ought to have their eyes fixed upon Athens. According to Polybius, the only thing the Athenians eventually got by their opposition to Philip was the defeat at Chaeronea. "And had it not been for the king's magnanimity and regard for his own reputation, their misfortunes would have gone even further, thanks to the policy of Demosthenes."Polybius, Histories, 13

"The man who deems himself born only to his parents will wait for his natural and destined end; the son of his country is willing to die rather than see her enslaved, and will look upon those outrages and indignities, which a commonwealth in subjection is compelled to endure, as more dreadful than death itself."

Demosthenes (''On the Crown, 210)

K. Paparrigopoulos extolled Demosthenes' patriotism, but objurgated him as short-sighted. According to this critique, Demosthenes should have understood that the ancient Greek states could survive only unified under the leadership of Macedon. Therefore, Demosthenes is accused of misjudging events, opponents and opportunities and of being unable to foresee Philip's inevitable triumph. He is criticized for having overrated Athens' capacity to revive and challenge Macedon.K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 318-326 His city had lost most of his Aegean allies, whereas Philip had consolidated his hold over Macedonia and was master of enormous mineral wealth. C. Carey concluded that Demosthenes was a better orator and political operator than strategist. Nevertheless, the same scholar underscored that "pragmatists" like Aeschines or Phocion had no inspiring vision to rival that of Demosthenes. The orator asked the Athenians to choose that what is just and honorable, before their own safety and preservation. The people preferred Demosthenes' activism and even Chaeronea's defeat was regarded as a worth paying price in the attempt to retain freedom and influence. According to A. W. Pickard, success may be an unworthy criterion to judge the actions of people like Demosthenes, who were dominated by the sentiment of political liberty.A.W. Pickard, Demosthenes and the Last Days of Greek Freedom, 490 Athens was asked by Philip to sacrifice its freedom and its democracy,K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 318-326 while Demosthenes longed for the city's brilliance. He endeavored to revive its imperiled values and, thus, he became an "educator of the people" (in the words of Werner Jaeger).J. De Romilly, A Short History of Greek Literature, 121-122

The fact that Demosthenes fought at the battle of Chaeronea as a hoplite indicates that he lacked any military skills. During this period of the Athenian history, almost no politician, with the exception of Phocion, was at the same time an apt orator and a competent general. Demosthenes was no exception to the rule. This disproportion between his intellectual prowess and his deficiencies in terms of vigor, stamina, military skill and strategic vision is illustrated by the inscription his countrymen engraved on the base of his statue:

Had you for Greece been strong, as wise you were,

The Macedonian had not conquered her.Plutarch, Demosthenes, 31

Oratorical skill

Dionysius of Halicarnassus asserted that Demosthenes represents the final stage in the development of Attic prose. According to Dionysius, the orator joined the excellences of the basic types of style; he used the middle or normal type style ordinarily and applied the archaic type and the type of plain elegance where they were fitting. In each one of the three types he excelled its special masters.Dionysius, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes, 46 He is, therefore, regarded as a consummate adept in the techniques of oratory, which are fused in his work. In his initial judicial orations, the influence of both Lysias and Isaeus is obvious K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 86, but his marked, original style is already revealed. Demosthenes' "affects no learning; he aims at no elegance; he seeks no glaring ornaments; he rarely touches the heart with a soft or melting appeal, and when he does, it is only with an effect in which a third-rate speaker would have surpassed him. He had no wit, no humour, no vivacity, in our acceptance of these terms. The secret of his power is simple, for it lies essentially in this, that his political principles were interwoven with his very spirit." Demosthenes was apt at combining abruptness with the exended period, brevity with breadth. Hence, his style harmonized the fervent traits of his commitment. His language is simple and natural, never far-fetched or artificial. According to R.C. Jebb, Demosthenes was a true artist who could make his art obey him. For his part, Aeschines stigmatized his intensity, attributing to his rival strings of absurd and incoherent images.Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 166 Dionysius underscored that Demosthenes' only shortcoming was the lack of humor,Dionysius, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes, 56, although Quintilian regarded this deficiency as a virtue. Quintillian, Institutiones, VI, 3, 2 The main criticism of Demosthenes' art, however, seems to have rested chiefly on his known reluctance to speak extempore, J. Bollansie, Hermippos of Smyrna, 415 He often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand. He gave the most elaborate preparation to all his speeches and, therefore, his arguments were the products of careful study. Nevertheless, he was famous for his caustic wit.

"For a house, I take it, or a ship or anything of that sort must have its chief strength in its substructure; and so too in affairs of state the principles and the foundations must be truth and justice."

Demosthenes (''Second Olynthiac, 10)

According to Cicero, Demosthenes regarded "acting" (gestures, voice etc.) as more important than style. Cicero, Brutus, 38, 142 Although he lacked Aeschines' charming voice and Demades' talent of improvisation, he made efficient use of his body to accentuate his words. Therefore, he was able to project his ideas and arguments much more forcefully. His acting was not, however, accepted by everybody in antiquity: Demetrius Phalereus and the comedians taunted Demosthenes' "theatricality" Plutarch, Demosthenes, 9-11 and Aeschines regarded Leodamas of Acharnae as superior to him.Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 139

Rhetorical legacy

Demosthenes' fame continued down the ages. The scholars at the Library of Alexandria carefully edited the manuscripts of his speeches, while Roman schoolboys studied his art as part of their own oratorical training. Juvenal acclaimed him as "largus et exundans fons"Juvenal, Satura, X, 119 and Cicero was inspired by Demosthenes for his speeches against Mark Antony, which were called Philippics too. Plutarch drew attention in his Life of Demosthenes to the strong similarities between the personalities and careers of Demosthenes and Marcus Tullius Cicero:Plutarch, Demosthenes, 5

During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, Demosthenes had a reputation for eloquence. In modern history, famous orators like Henry Clay would mimic Demosthenes' technique. His ideas and principles survived, influencing prominent politicians and movements of our times. Hence, he constituted a source of inspiration for the authors of the Federalist and for the major orators of the French Revolution.K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 352 Georges Clemenceau was among those who idealized the Athenian orator and wrote a book about him.V. Marcu, Men and Forces of Our Time, 32 For his part, Nietzsche was often composing his sentences according to the paradigms he found in Demosthenes,P. J. M. Van Tongeren, Reinterpreting Modern Culture, 92 whose style he admired.F. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, 247 During the World War II the fighters of the French Resistance identified themselves with Demosthenes, while they gave Adolf Hitler the name of Philip. Thereby, the Athenian statesman was recognised as the symbol of independence and as a synonym of resistance against any tyrannical oppression.

References in popular culture

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Demosthenes constituted a source of inspiration for historical novelists. In Fire From Heaven by Mary Renault, Demosthenes is depicted as the chief villain. Valentine Wiggin used the orator's name as an online pseudonym in the Ender's Game series of books by Orson Scott Card.

"Demosthenes" is also the namesake of the Demosthenian Literary Society at the University of Georgia.

Works

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Orations

Of Demosthenes' orations sixty-one survive. The authorship of at least nine of them is however disputed. Friedrich Blass predicates that nine more speeches were recorded by the orator, but they are not extant.F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, III, 2, 60

Prologues

Fifty-six prologues, namely openings of Demosthenes' speeches, are extant, but they were probably written after the orator's death.

Letters

Six letters are written under Demosthenes' name, but their authorship is disputed as well.

See also

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• Ancient Macedonians
• Athenian democracy
• Attic orators
• History of Athens
• Philippic
• Timeline of Ancient Greece

External links

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Biographies

• by Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Edition
• by online Britannica
• by N.S. Gill
• by Ron Kurtus
• by Jona Lendering
• by the Ancient Library
• by the Art of Speech
• by the Center for Hellenic Studies
• by The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
• by the Perseus Encyclopedia

His era

• Sanderson Beck, Philip, Demosthenes, and Alexander
• Christopher W. Blackwell, The Assembly during Demosthenes' era
• online Britannica, Macedonian supremacy in Greece
• William Smith, A Smaller History of Ancient Greece-Philip of Macedon

Comments on his speeches

• Introduction to the oration On the Crown by Thomas Leland
• Introduction to the orations On the Crown and On the Dishonest Embassy by Harvey Yunis

Miscellaneous

• Libanius, Hypotheses to the Orations of Demosthenes

Notes

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α. According to K. Tsatsos, the trials against the guardians lasted until Demosthenes was twenty four. F. Nietzsche reduces the time of the judicial disputes to five years.F. Nietzsche, Lessons of Rhetoric, 65

β. In Brutus Cicero predicates that Demosthenes was Plato's disciple.Cicero, Brutus, 6 In Institutiones Quintilian repeats the same thing.Quintilian, Institutiones, XII, 2 XXII According to H. Weil, Cicero and Quintilian were deceived, while Plutarch is more accurate. K. Tsatsos underscores that "there is no indication that Demosthenes was a pupil of Plato or Isocrates".K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 84 As far as Isaeus is concerned, according to Sir Richard C. Jebb "the school of Isaeus is nowhere else mentioned, nor is the name of any other pupil recorded". H. T. Peck believes that Demosthenes continued to study under Isaeus for the space of four years after he had reached his majority.

γ. Both K. TsatsosK. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 90 and H. WeilH. Weil, Bioraphy of Demothenes, 17 maintain that Demosthenes never abandoned the profession of the logographer, but, after delivering his first political orations, he wanted to be regarded as a statesman. Thereby, he exercised less ostentatiously his duties as a lawyer. According to J. Murphy, his lifelong career as a logographer continued even during his most intense involvement in the political struggle against Philip.

δ. "Theorika" were allowances paid by the state to poor Athenians to enable them to watch dramatic festivals. Eubulus passed a law making it difficult to divert public funds, including "theorika" for minor military operations.

ε. Demosthenes characterized Philip as a "barbarian" in the Third OlynthiacDemosthenes, Third Olynthiac, 16 and 24 and in the Third Philippic.Demosthenes, Third Philippic, 31 According to K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes regarded as Greeks only those who had reached the cultural standards of south Greece and he did not take into consideration ethnological criteria.K. Tsatsos, Demosthenes, 258

στ. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes is said to have deserted his colors.pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes, 7

ζ. Aeschines reproached Demosthenes for being silent as to the seventy talents of the king's gold which he allegedly seized and embezzled.Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 239-240 Aeschines and DinarchusDinarcus, Against Demosthenes, 18-21 also maintained that when the Arcadians came up as far as the Isthmus and their general offered their services for ten talents, Demosthenes refused to furnish the money to the Thebans, who were conducting the negotiations, and so the Arcadian general sold out to the Macedonians. In one of his most vehement attacks against Demosthenes, Dinarchus raises the following query: "Will you not execute this accursed wretch, Athenians, who, in addition to many other crucial blunders, stood by while the Thebans' city was destroyed, though he had accepted three hundred talents from the Persian King for their protection ... ?"

η. According to Pausanias, Demosthenes himself and others had again and again declared that assuredly the orator took no part of the money that Harpalus brought from Asia.Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2, 33 He also narrates the following story: "Shortly after Harpalus ran away from Athens and crossed with a squadron to Crete, he was put to death by the servants who were attending him, though some assert that he was assassinated by Pausanias, a Macedonian. The steward of his money fled to Rhodes, and was arrested by a Macedonian, Philoxenus, who also had demanded Harpalus from the Athenians. Having this slave in his power, he proceeded to examine him, until he learned everything about such as had allowed themselves to accept a bribe from Harpalus. On obtaining this information he sent a dispatch to Athens, in which he gave a list of such as had taken a bribe from Harpalus, both their names and the sums each had received. Demosthenes, however, he never mentioned at all, although Alexander held him in bitter hatred, and he himself had a private quarrel with him."On the other hand, Plutarch predicates that Harpalus sent Demosthenes a cup with twenty talents and that "Demosthenes could not resist the temptation, but admitting the present, like an armed garrison, into the citadel of his house, he surrendered himself up to the interest of Harpalus".

θ. F.Blass disputes the authorship of the following speeches: Fourth Philippic, Funeral Oration, Erotic Essay, Against Stephanus 2 and Against Evergus and Mnesibulus.F. Blass, Die attische Beredsamkeit, III, 1, 404-406 and 542-546 A. Schaefer disputes the authorship of the following orations: Reply to Philip, Against Leochares, Against Stephanus 1 and Against Eubulides.A. Schaefer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit, III, 111, 178, 247 and 257

ι. Only two or three of these letters are considered genuine.

Citations

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Time line

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Timeline of Demosthenes' life (384 BC-322 BC)

References

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Primary sources (Greeks and Romans)

• Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon. See original text in Perseus program.
• Aeschines, Against Timarchus. See original text in Perseus program.
• Aeschines, The Speech on the Embassy. See original text in Perseus program.
• Cicero, Brutus. See original text in the Latin Library
• Demosthenes, Against Aphobus 1. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, Against Aphobus 3. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, Against Aristocrates. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, For the Liberty of the Rhodians. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, First Philippic. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, First Olynthiac. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, Second Olynthiac. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, Third Olynthiac. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, On the Peace. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes,Second Philippic, Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, On the False Embassy. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, On Halonnesus. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes,Third Philippic, Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, Against Zenothemis. See original text in Perseus program.
• Demosthenes, On the Crown. See original text in Perseus program.
• Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes. See original text in Perseus program.
• Diodurus Siculuc, Library. See original text in Perseus program.
• Dionysius of Halicarnassus, On the Admirable Style of Demosthenes.
• Hypereides,Against Demosthenes. See original text in Perseus program
• Juvenal, Saturae. See original text in the Latin Library
• Lucian, Demosthenes, An Encomium. Translated in Sacred Texts
• Lucian, The Illiterate Book-Fancier. Translated Sacred Texts
• Pausanias, Description of Greece. See original text in Perseus program
• Plutarch, Demosthenes. The texts quoted from Plutarch are taken from John Dryden's translation
• Plutarch, Phocion.
• Polybius, Histories. See original text in Perseus program
• Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes. See Charles Barcroft's translation
• Quintilian, Institutiones. See original text in the Latin Library

Secondary sources

• Encyclopedia Britannica (2002). article: Demosthenes.
• Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios. Volume V. article: Demosthenes (in Greek).
• Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos (-Pavlos Karolidis) (1925), History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab). Eleftheroudakis (in Greek).

Further reading

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384 BC births 322 BC deaths Ancient Athenians Ancient Greeks Démosthénés Demosthenes Demosthenes Demóstenes Demosteno Démosthène (orateur) Demostene דמוסתנס Demosthenes Démoszthenész Demosthenes デモステネス Demostenes Demostenes (mówca grecki) Demóstenes Demostene Демосфен Demostenes Demosthenes Demosthenes Demosthenes (mananalumpati) Демосфен 狄摩西尼