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Craniosacral therapy (also called cranial osteopathy, osteopathy in the cranial field or cranial therapy) is a method of alternative medicine used by craniosacral therapists or osteopaths to assess and enhance the functioning of the patient by accessing their primary respiratory mechanism, which consists of the membranes and cerebrospinal fluid of the central nervous system. Proponents claim that measurements of craniosacral motion are a function of the cardiovascular system, and that by working with the body, including the skull they can remove restrictions in the flow of cerebrospinal fluid, relieving stress, decreasing pain, and enhancing overall health. The Upledger Institute (2001). Craniosacral Therapy. Retrieved March 27, 2004. Ferrett, Mij (1998). What Is Craniosacral Therapy? Retrieved March 27, 2004. The Sutherland Society General information on Cranial Osteopathy Retrieved January 24, 2006 Opponents claim that the therapy has been shown to be without scientific basis, S.E. Hartman, J.M. Norton (2002) Interexaminer reliability and cranial osteopathy. Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine. 6(1): 23-34 PDF full report Ferre JC, Chevalier C, Lumineau JP, Barbin JY (1990) Cranial osteopathy, delusion or reality? Actualites Odonto-Stomatologiques 44: 481-494. PMID 2173359 Wirth-Pattullo V, Hayes KW (1994) Interrater reliability of craniosacral rate measurements and their relationship with subjects' and examiners' heart and respiratory rate measurements. Physical Therapy 74(10): 908-916. PMID 8090842] Rogers JS and others (1998) Simultaneous palpation of the craniosacral rate at the head and feet: intrarater and interrater reliability and rate comparisons. Physical Therapy 78(11): 1175-1185. PMID 9806622 and some studies that support the therapy have been criticized for poor methodology. Green C and others (1999) A systematic review and critical appraisal of the scientific evidence on craniosacral therapy. BCOHTA PDF full report

History

Cranial therapy was originated by osteopathic doctor William Sutherland DO (1873-1954), who studied under the founder of osteopathy, Andrew Taylor Still, at the first American School of Osteopathy in 1898-1900. While looking at a disarticulated skull, Sutherland was struck by the idea that the cranial sutures of the temporal bones where they meet the sphenoid bones were "beveled, like the gills of a fish, indicating articular mobility for a respiratory mechanism." Sutherland A (1962). With Thinking Fingers. Indianapolis, IN: Cranial Academy, 13. The idea that the bones of the skull could move was contrary to contemporary anatomical belief. Sutherland spent many years attempting to disprove his theory, but research on himself and on his patients led him to conclude that the bones of the skull do move along their sutures, and any hindrance in movement may be associated with a dysfunction.

After confirming the presence of movement between the bones of the skull, Sutherland evolved the idea that the dural membranes act as 'guy-wires' for the movement of the cranial bones, holding tension for the opposite motion. He used the term reciprocal tension membrane system (RTM) to describe the three Cartesian axes held in reciprocal tension, or tensegrity, creating the cyclic movement of inhalation and exhalation of the cranium. He called this breathing movement the primary respiratory mechanism, and later described its origin as the Breath of Life, Sutherland W (1939). ''The Cranial Bowl. Mankato, MN: Self-published. Republished 1986, Indianapolis, IN: Cranial Academy. from the Book of Genesis (2:7). This was an acknowledgement of the vital force as a fundamental aspect of osteopathic philosophy.

The RTM as described by Sutherland includes the spinal dura, with an attachment to to the sacrum. In his observation of the cranial mechanism, Sutherland found that the sacrum moves synchronously with the cranial bones. The mechanical relationship between motion in the sacrum and the parietal bones has since been confirmed in experiments using electrodes measuring capacitance across parietal sutures of the squirrel monkey. Retzlaff EW, Michael DK, Roppel RM. Cranial bone mobility. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1975 May;74(9):869-73. PMID 804505

Sutherland began to teach this work to other osteopaths from about the 1930s, and tirelessly continued to do so until his death. His work was at first largely rejected by the mainstream osteopathic profession as it challenged some of the closely held beliefs among practitioners of the time. However, his clinical results were impressive and he began to attract a small group of osteopaths who studied with him.

In the 1940s the American School of Osteopathy started a post-graduate course called 'Osteopathy in the Cranial Field' directed by Sutherland, and was followed by other schools. This new branch of practice became known as "cranial osteopathy". As the reputation of this form of treatment began to spread, Sutherland trained more teachers to meet the demand, notably Drs Viola Frymann, Edna Lay, Howard Lippincott, Anne Wales, Chester Handy and Rollin Becker.

The Cranial Academy was established in the US in 1947, and continues to teach DOs, MDs, and Dentists "an expansion of the general principles of osteopathy" The Cranial Academy Accessed 10th July 2006 including a special understanding of the central nervous system and primary respiration.

Towards the end of his life Sutherland began to sense a "power" which generated corrections from inside his clients' bodies without the influence of external forces applied by him as the therapist. Similar to Qi and Prana, this contact with the Breath of Life changed his entire treatment focus to one of spiritual reverence and subtle touch. The Cranial Academy Osteopathy in the Cranial Field Retrieved January 24, 2006. This spiritual approach to the work has come to be known as both "biodynamic" craniosacral therapy and "biodynamic" osteopathy, and has had further contributions from practitioners such as Becker and James Jealous (biodynamic osteopathy), and Franklyn Sills (biodynamic craniosacral therapy). The biodynamic approach recognises that embryological forces direct the embryonic cells to create the shape of the body, and places importance on recognition of these formative patterns for maximum therapeutic benefit, as this enhances the ability of the patient to access their health as an expression of the original intention of their existence.

In 1953 Sutherland established the Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foundation as a way of providing a continuity for his teaching. Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foundation Accessed 10th July 2006

From 1975 to 1983, osteopathic physician John Upledger worked at Michigan State University as a clinical researcher and professor, and set up a team of anatomists, physiologists, biophysicists, and bioengineers to investigate the pulse he had observed and study further Sutherland's theory of cranial bone movement. Upledger went on to publish his results, which showed support for both the concept of cranial bone movement and the concept of a cranial rhythm. Upledger JE (1977) The reproducibility of craniosacral examination findings: a statistical analysis. J Am Osteopath Assoc 76(12):890-899. PMID 7899490 Upledger JE (1978) The relationship of craniosacral examination findings in grade school children with developmental problems. J Am Osteopath Assoc 77(10): 760-776. PMID 659282 Upledger JE, Karni Z (1979) Mechano-electric patterns during craniosacral osteopathic diagnosis and treatment. J Am Osteopath Assoc 78(11):782-791. PMID 582820

Upledger developed his own treatment style, and when he started to teach his work to a group of students who were not osteopaths he generated the term 'CranioSacral therapy', based on the corresponding movement between cranium and sacrum. Craniosacral therapists often (although not exclusively) work more directly with the emotional and psychological aspects of the patient than osteopaths working in the cranial field. The Upledger Institute, formed in 1987, has many international affiliates The Upledger Institute Accessed 10th July 2006 united by Upledger's International Association of Healthcare Practitioners. International Association of Healthcare Practitioners Accessed 10th July 2006

The Craniosacral Therapy Association of the UK (CSTA) was established to promote and regulate craniosacral therapists from various UK colleges. Craniosacral Therapy Association of the UK Accessed 10th July 2006 Graduates from the College of Craniosacral Therapy who had their own register later became eligible for registration with the CSTA. The Craniosacral Therapy Association of North America was founded in 1998 for the recognition, registration, and as a referral service for certified Craniosacral Therapists and students. Craniosacral Therapy Association of North America Accessed 10th July 2006 The Craniosacral Therapy Association of Australia was established in 2004. Craniosacral Therapy Association of Australia Accessed 10th July 2006

The Primary Respiratory Mechanism

Craniosacral therapy is originally based on Sutherland's 'Cranial Concept', Sutherland, W G. The Cranial Bowl. Self-published, 1939. Reprinted by the Cranial Academy, 1948. which proposed a system known as the Primary Respiratory Mechanism (PRM). The basis of PRM function has been summarised in the following five phenomena:

The effect of the above five on the rest of the body is suggested by Magoun Magoun H I (ed.), Osteopathy in the Cranial Field. The Cranial Academy, 3rd edn, 1976, p. 23. as a sixth phenomena.

Inherent motility of the central nervous system

Still described the inherent motion of the brain as a "dynamo," beginning with the cerebellum, Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, pp. 193-8. ISBN 9780967585139. a century before electroencephalography (EEG) studies confirmed the presence of this activity. Cohen D (1968). Magnetoencephalography: Evidence of magnetic fields produced by alpha-rhythm currents. Science, 161:784-786 Emanuel Swedenborg was the first to discover inherent motion in the brains of living dogs in the 18th Century. His work has since been verified by human physiologists: according to modern radiological observations the pulsatility of the central nervous system (CNS) is a function of the cardiac cycle, as described by Bergstrand in 1985 using magnetic resonance imaging. Bergstrand G et. al. Cardiac gated MR imaging of cerebrospinal fluid flow. J Comput Assist Tomogr, 1985 Nov-Dec;9(6):1003-6. PMID 2932480. The intracranial fluid fluctuation can be seen as an interaction between four main components: arterial blood, capillary blood (brain volume), venous blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Greitz D, Franck A, Nordell B. On the pulsatile nature of intracranial and spinal CSF-circulation demonstrated by MR imaging. Acta Radiol. 1993 Jul;34(4):321-8. PMID 8318291. Greitz D, Wirestam R, Franck A et. al. Pulsatile brain movement and associated hydrodynamics studied by magnetic resonance phase imaging. The Monro-Kellie doctrine revisited. Neuroradiology. 1992;34(5):370-80. PMID 1407513. The function of such a mechanism is explained by Lee p. 197 as being based on a fulcrum created by the root of the cerebellum and its hemispheres moving in opposite directions, resulting in an increase in pressure which squeezes the third ventricle. The pulsation is described as essentially a recurrent expression of the embryological development of the brain. p. 196-7

This motility turn causes a rhythmic fluctuation of the CSF.

Fluctuation of the cerebrospinal fluid

Sutherland used the term "Tide" to describe the inherent fluctuation of fluids in the Primary Respiratory Mechanism. Tide alludes to the concept of ebbing and flowing, but also the contrast between waves on the shore having one rhythm, with the longer rate of lunar tides below. The Tide incorporates not only fluctuation of the CSF, but of a slow oscillation in all the tissues of the body, including the skull.

Practitioners work with cycles of various rates:

  • 10-14 cycles per minute - the original "Cranial Rhythmic Impulse" (CRI) Magoun H I (ed.), Osteopathy in the Cranial Field. The Cranial Academy, 3rd edn, 1976, p. 25. (also described as 6-14 times per minute) Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, 198. ISBN 9780967585139.
  • 2-3 cycles per minute - the "mid-Tide"
  • 6 cycles every 10 minutes - the "long Tide"

Following on from the work of Swedenborg, Traube and Hering in the 19th Century observed fluctuations in the arterial rates of dogs (the Traube-Hering wave) at similar rates to those reported by cranial practitioners. In 1960 Lundberg made a continuous recording of intracranial activities of traumatised patients, finding three waves, one of which resembles the CRI. Lundberg N. Continuous recording and conrold of ventricular fluid pressure in neurosurgical practice. Acta Psychiat Neurol Scand, 36:suppl 149, 1960. Quoted in Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, p. 199. ISBN 9780967585139.

Research has not verified a large correlation in rates detected between examiners working simultaneously on a subject, possibly due to the rate being a product of entrainment between patient and practitioner. McPartland JM, Mein EA. Entrainment and the cranial rhythmic impulse. Altern Ther Health Med. 1997 Jan;3(1):40-5. PMID 8997803

Mobility of the intracranial and intraspinal dural membranes

The membranes surrounding the brain and separating the left and right halves and the cerebrum from the cerebellum are continuous with the spinal dura, and share the same fluctuating rhythm. In 1970 Upledger observed during a surgical procedure on the neck what he described as a slow pulsating movement within the spinal meninges. He attempted to hold the membrane still and found that he could not due to the strength of the action behind the movement. Upledger J E, Vredevoogd J. 1983 Craniosacral Therapy Eastland Press. ISBN 0939616017

In craniosacral treatment the membranes act as a fulcrum for fascial restrictions throughout the body, and craniosacral therapists may perceive a change in quality as a result of disturbance such as infection or allergic irritation.

Mobility of the cranial bones

Cranial sutures are often believed to be immobile after fusion, preventing cranial bone movement. This belief arose in the mid-1900s. According to Lee Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, 130-33. ISBN 9780967585139. this belief was misinterpreted from the work of authors hoping to correlate suture closure with the chronological age of a skull in archaeological specimens. The authors not only found that there was no correlation between suture closure and the chronological age of the individual, but also that most skulls demonstrated no suture closure at all except as structural evidence of pathological physical trauma. Lee cites many references giving evidence for mobility in human skulls, and modern anatomy books suggest incomplete fusion of some sutures, for example: "Sutural ligaments may effect an almost immovable bond between large areas of bone... but such immobility cannot be effected at narrow edges of bones in the cranial vault," and: "When such sutures are tied by sutural ligament and periosteum, almost complete immobility results." Williams P L, Warwick R, Dyson M, Bannister L H. Gray's Anatomy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 37th edn, 1989, p. 468. ISBN 0443025886

It is usual in cranial textbooks to say that the motion of the skull is possible during flexion and extension because the sutures are mobile, especially the spenobasilar synchondrosis - the junction between the base of the sphenoid and the occiput. Positional descriptions of cranial lesions traditionally relate to the relationship between the sphenoid and the occiput at this junction. An alternative theory to SBS motion taught in craniosacral training suggests that sutures are "lines of folding", like pre-folded marks on cardboard, rather than necessarily being fully open. Cook, Andrew, An alternative to Spenobasilar Synchondrosis (SBS) Motion. Self-published online, Sep 2005. PDF

Mobility of the sacrum between the ilia

Mobility of the sacroiliac joint is not contested, although the fulcrum of craniosacral movement is through the body of the second sacral vertebra or segment (S2). The cranial concept recognises the link between the sacrum and occiput via the spinal dura, which is attached to the anterior of the sacrum at S2: as the occiput goes into extension the sacrum nutates, and the converse also occurs. The occiput can therefore be influenced by treatment of the sacrum, and vice-versa.

Craniosacral treatment

Typically craniosacral treatment is carried out on a fully-clothed patient in a supine position. The therapist places their hands lightly on the patient's body, tuning in to the patient by ‘listening’ with their hands or, in Sutherland's words, "with thinking fingers". Therapeutic contact between the patient and therapist may involve entrainment between patient and practitioner. McPartland JM, Mein EA. Entrainment and the cranial rhythmic impulse. Altern Ther Health Med. 1997 Jan;3(1):40-5. PMID 8997803 Patients often experience a sense of deep relaxation during and after the treatment session, and may feel light-headed. This is popularly associated with increases in endorphins, but research shows the effects may actually be brought about by the endocannabinoid system. McPartland JM, Giuffrida A, King J et. al. Cannabimimetic effects of osteopathic manipulative treatment. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2005 Jun;105(6):283-91. PMID 16118355

Craniosacral therapy is well known for its benefits to children. Frymann VM, Carney RE, Springall P. Effect of osteopathic medical management on neurologic development in children. J Am Osteopath Assoc, Vol. 92, No. 6. (June 1992), pp. 729-744. PMID 1377192 Adverse side effects of treatment are uncommon: in a study of craniosacral manipulation in patients with traumatic brain syndrome the adverse effects of treatment was 5%. Greenman PE, McPartland JM. Cranial findings and iatrogenesis from craniosacral manipulation in patients with traumatic brain syndrome. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1995 Mar;95(3):182-8; 191-2. Postgraduate study at the UK Osteopathic Centre for children can lead to the award of a Diploma in Paediatric Osteopathy.

Practice

Training in craniosacral therapy does not involve education to the standard of a first line medical practitioner, and craniosacral therapists are not qualified to diagnose medical conditions unless they are also an osteopath or other type of physician.

In craniosacral practice, other therapies such as polarity therapy (based on the work of Randolph Stone) may form part of the basis of the treatment approach.

Criticisms

Skeptics existing both inside and outside the osteopathic profession level the following criticisms at craniosacral therapy:

  • Lack of evidence for the existence of "cranial bone movement"
The scientific evidence for cranial bone movement is insufficient to support the theories claimed by craniosacral practitioners. Scientific research supports the theory that the cranial bones fuse during adolescence, making movement impossible. Madeline LA, Elster AD. (1995) Suture closure in the human chondrocranium: CT assessment. Radiology 196(3):747-756. PMID 7644639

  • Lack of evidence for the existence of the "cranial rhythm"
While evidence exists for cerebrospinal fluid pulsation, one study states it is caused by the functioning of the cardiovascular system and not by the workings of the craniosacral system.Ferre JC, Chevalier C, Lumineau JP, Barbin JY (1990) Cranial osteopathy, delusion or reality? Actualites Odonto-Stomatologiques 44: 481-494. PMID 2173359

  • Lack of evidence linking "cranial rhythm" to disease
No research to date has supported the link between the "cranial rhythm" and general health, but neither has it been disproved.Green C and others (1999) A systematic review and critical appraisal of the scientific evidence on craniosacral therapy. BCOHTA PDF full report

  • Lack of evidence "cranial rhythm" is detectable by practitioners
Operator interreliability has been very poor in the studies that have been done. Five studies showed an operator interreliability of zero.S.E. Hartman, J.M. Norton (2002) Interexaminer reliability and cranial osteopathy. Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine. 6(1): 23-34 PDF full report
The one study showing some operator interreliability has been criticized as deeply flawed in a report to the British Columbia Office of Health Technology Assessment.Green C and others (1999) A systematic review and critical appraisal of the scientific evidence on craniosacral therapy. BCOHTA PDF full report

Training and accreditation

Craniosacral therapy is not protected by statute either in the US or the UK, and there is currently no legal requirement to be trained to any standard or registered with a professional association. In the UK the Health Professions Council is consulting on whether to integrate all craniosacral therapists in the UK under their umbrella of state regulated professions.

Accreditation and training in the US

In 1985 Upledger established the Upledger Institute, a health center based in Florida and dedicated to the education and certification of practitioners in craniosacral and related therapies.

Accreditation and training in the UK

There are currently two different organisations in the UK offering registration of practitioners graduating in craniosacral therapy, the UK Craniosacral Therapy Association (CSTA), whose members may use the postnominal letters 'RCST', and The Cranio Sacral Society, based in Perth, Scotland and founded in 1993. The CSTA validates five training colleges, and the The Cranio Sacral Society offers regulation for those with postgraduate training with The Upledger Institute. Both registering bodies are self-governed and have their own code of ethics. They have made moves towards amalgamation into a common register via the Forum for Cranial Practitioners, but the diversity of their training programmes has prevented this.

Links

Practitioner Organisations

Training Organisations (UK)

Training Organisations (US)

Other Organisations

Advocacy

Criticism

References

Alternative medicine

Cranio-Sacral-Therapie

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Craniosacral therapy".

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