Catiline

Lucius Sergius Catilina (108 BC?–62 BC), known in English as Catiline, was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate.

One of the most enigmatic figures of Roman history, Catiline has been obscured by the invective of historians. The two chief sources for information on Catiline possessed numerous reasons to depict him in the worst possible light. Marcus Tullius Cicero, his most bitter political enemy, spared no denunciation particularly in his Catiline Orations, and Gaius Sallustius attributed some of the vilest crimes to him in his moralistic monograph, Bellum Catilinae. Thus, many of the gravest accusations such as human sacrifice are likely fabrications. However, Catiline's conspiracy is one of the most famous events of the turbulent final decades of the Roman Republic.

Life

Family background

Catiline was born in 108 BC (or possibly slightly earlier) to one of the oldest patrician families at Rome. Although his family was of consular heritage, they were of declining social and financial fortunes: the last Sergius to be consul had been Gnaeus Sergius Fidenas Coxo in 380 BC. Furthermore, Catiline would later be driven by attempting to restore the political heritage of his family along with its financial power.

Military career

An able commander, Catiline had a distinguished military career. He served in the Social War with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Cicero, under Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo in 89 BC. During Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Cinna and Gnaeus Papirius Carbo´s regime, Catiline played no major role, but he remained politically secure. He later supported Lucius Cornelius Sulla in the civil war of 84 BC–81 BC. Then in the early 70s BC he served abroad, possibly with Publius Servilius Vatia at Cilicia. In 73 BC, he was brought to trial for adultery with the Vestal Virgin, Fabia, but Quintus Lutatius Catulus, the principal leader of the Optimates, testified in his favor, and eventually Catiline was acquitted.

He was praetor in 68 BC and for the following 2 years was the propraetorian governor for Africa. Upon his return home in 66 BC, he presented himself as a candidate for the consular elections; however, he was prevented from becoming a candidate on technical grounds by the current consul, Lucius Volcanius Tullus. Subsequently, a delegation from his province appealed to the Senate alleging abuse of power while governor. He was finally brought to trial in 65 BC, where he received the support of many of the most distinguished men in Rome, including many of the consulars. Even one of the consuls for 65 BC, Lucius Manlius Torquatus, demonstrated his support for Catiline. Cicero also contemplated defending Catiline in court. Eventually, Catiline was acquitted.

The First Catilinarian Conspiracy

In all likelihood, Catiline was not involved in the so called First Catilinarian Conspiracy; however, several historical sources implicate him in it. There does not seem to be a single account that is represented in all of the sources, rather it seems that the accounts represent a collection of rumors. As it pertains to Catiline, much of the information originates in Cicero’s speech In Toga Candida which was given during his election campaign in 64 BC.

The consuls-designate, Publius Autronius Paetus and Publius Cornelius Sulla, were prevented from entering office because of ambitus, electoral corruption. Thus, the two other leading candidates, Lucius Manlius Torquatus and Lucius Aurelius Cotta, would enter office on January 1, 65 BC. Supposedly, Catiline, incensed because he was not allowed to run for the consulship, conspired with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso and the former consuls-designate to slaughter many of the senators and the new consuls the day they assumed office. Then they would name themselves the consuls for 65 BC and then Piso would have been sent to organize the provinces in Spain.

Later, in 62 BC, Cicero defended Publius Sulla in court after he was indicted for being a member of the more recent conspiracy. In the end, Publius Sulla was acquitted and Cicero received a large loan to purchase a home. It is not clear who participated in this alleged conspiracy. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that Catiline was involved in the First Catilinarian Conspiracy or if, indeed, it ever existed. Furthermore, Gaius Suetonius claims that Gaius Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus directed the conspiracy, but he never mentions Catiline.

The intervening years

During 64 BC Catiline was officially accepted as a candidate in the consular election for 63 BC. He ran alongside Gaius Antonius Hybrida whom some suspect may have been a fellow conspirator. Nevertheless, Catiline was defeated by Cicero and Antonius Hybrida in the consular election, largely because the Roman aristocracy feared Catiline and his economic plan. He promoted the plight of the urban plebs along with his economic policy of tabulae novae, the universal cancellation of debts.

He was brought to trial later that same year, but this time it was for his role in the Sullan proscriptions. At the insistence of the quaestor Marcus Porcius Cato Uticencis, all men who had profited during the proscriptions were brought to trial. For his involvement, Catiline was accused of killing his brother-in-law Marcus Marius Gratidianus, carrying this man’s severed head through the streets of Rome and then having Sulla add him to the proscription to make it legal. Other allegations claim that he murdered several other notable men. Despite this, Catiline was acquitted again, though some surmise that it was through the influence of Caesar who presided over the court.

Again, Catiline chose to run for the consulship. In the consular election for 62 BC, Catiline was defeated by Decimus Junius Silanus and Lucius Licinius Murena, and in turn his political ambitions were crushed. The only chance at attaining the consulship would be through an illegitimate means, conspiracy or revolution.

The Second Catilinarian Conspiracy

Catiline began to attach many other men of senatorial and equestrian rank to his conspiracy, and like him many of the other leading conspirators had faced similar political problems in the Senate. Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, the most influential conspirator after Catiline, had held the rank of consul in 71 BC, but he was cast out of the senate by the censors during a political purge in the following year. Autronius was also complicit in their plot, since he was banned from the Roman government.

Promoting his policy of debt relief, Catiline rallied many of poor to his banner along with many of Sulla’s veterans. He sent Gaius Manlius, a centurion from Sulla’s old army, to manage the conspiracy in Etruria where he assembled an army. Other men were sent to take other important locations throughout Italy, and even a small slave revolt began in Capua. While civil unrest was felt throughout the countryside, Catiline made the final preparations for the conspiracy in Rome. Their plans included arson and the slaughter of the senators, after which they would join up with Manlius’ army. Finally, they would return to Rome and take control of the government. To set the plan in motion, Gaius Cornelius and Lucius Vargunteius were to assassinate Cicero early in the morning on November 7 63 BC, but Quintus Curius, a senator, warned Cicero of the threat through his mistress Fulvia and became one of his informants. Thus, Cicero escaped death.

Shortly thereafter, Cicero denounced Catiline before the senate in the first of his four Catiline Orations. Supposedly, Catiline violently responded that he would put out his own fire with the general destruction of all. Immediately afterwards, he threw himself out of the Senate house as he rushed home. That night, Catiline fled Rome under the pretext that he was going into voluntary exile at Massilia; however, he arrived at Manlius’ camp in Etruria.

While Catiline was preparing the army, the conspirators continued with their plans. The conspirators noticed that a delegation from the Allobroges were in Rome seeking relief from the oppression of their governor. So, Lentulus Sura instructed Publius Umbrenus, a businessman with dealings in Gaul, to offer to free them of their miseries. He brought Publius Gabinius Capito, a leading conspirator of the equestrian rank, to meet them and the conspiracy was revealed. The envoys quickly took advantage of this opportunity and informed Cicero who then instructed the envoys to get tangible proof of the conspiracy. Five of the leading conspirators wrote letters to the Allobroges so that the envoys could show their people that there was hope in a real conspiracy, but these letters were intercepted in transit to Gaul at Mulvian Bridge. Then, Cicero had the incriminating letters read before the Senate, and shortly thereafter these 5 conspirators were executed without a trial in the Tullianum. Thus, an end was made to the conspiracy in Rome.

This was a massive blow to Catiline as on hearing of the death of Lentulus Sura and the others many men deserted his army leaving him with some 10,000 men, about two Legions worth. He and his ill-equipped army began to march towards Gaul and then back towards Rome several times in vain attempts to avoid a battle. Inevitably, Catiline was forced to fight having been blocked by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer who had three legions in the north, so he chose to engage Antonius Hybrida’s army near Pistoria (now Pistoia) hoping that Antonius Hybrida would lose the battle and dishearten the other armies. Catiline may have still believed that Antonius Hybrida was conspiring with him, which may have been true as Antonius Hybrida claimed to be ill on the day of the battle. Nevertheless, Catiline himself bravely fought as a soldier in the battle, and once he saw that there was no hope of victory, he threw himself into the thickest of the enemy. When the corpses were counted, all of Catiline’s soldiers were found with forward wounds, and his corpse was found far in front of his own lines. His head was severed and carried back to Rome to assure everyone that he had indeed died.

Sources

Appian, Roman History
Dio Cassius Cocceianus, Roman History
Gaius Sallustius Crispus, Bellum Catilinae
Marcus Tullius Cicero, In Catilinam
Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Caelio
Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Murena
Marcus Tullius Cicero, Pro Sulla
Quintus Tullius Cicero, Commentariolum Petitionis

External links

108 BC births | 62 BC deaths | Ancient Roman politicians

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