Book of Mormon

The Book of Mormon is one of the sacred texts of the Latter Day Saint movement, named after the prophet Mormon from the book. Published by the founder of the Mormon movement, Joseph Smith, Jr., in March 1830 in Palmyra, New York, the belief in the truthfulness of this book stands as the central dividing doctrine of the denominations in the Latter Day Saint movement from traditional Christian faiths. Adherents to its teachings are commonly referred to as Mormons or Latter Day Saints. The book asserts that it contains part of the history of three large ancient American civilizations, and that one of these, the Lamanites are "the principal ancestors of the American Indians." The book declares that its purpose is to testify of Jesus through the writings of ancient prophets of the Western Hemisphere who traveled there from ancient Israel, probably between 625-575 BC. It asserts that it was abridged and compiled by the prophet/historian Mormon, and his son Moroni in the 5th century, for "the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God." Joseph Smith is said to have translated the record by divine inspiration with assistance from the Urim and Thummim from gold plates, which he claimed were returned to an angel later on.

Along with the Bible, which is also held to be the Word of God, the Book of Mormon is esteemed as part of the canon of churches that grew out of the Latter Day Saint movement, founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. The largest of these denominations, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), accepts the Bible "as far as it is translated correctly" (), as well as the Book of Mormon, the Pearl of Great Price, and the Doctrine and Covenants as canonical scripture. In 1982, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints added the subtitle Another Testament of Jesus Christ to its editions of the book to help clarify and emphasize its purpose.

Content

Title Page

The title page states:

The Book of Mormon—an account written by the hand of Mormon upon plates taken from the Plates of Nephi

Wherefore, it is an abridgment of the record of the people of Nephi, and also of the Lamanites—Written to the Lamanites, who are a remnant of the house of Israel; and also to Jew and Gentile—Written by way of commandment, and also by the spirit of prophecy and of revelation—Written and sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord, that they might not be destroyed—To come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof—Sealed by the hand of Moroni, and hid up unto the Lord, to come forth in due time by way of the Gentile—The interpretation thereof by the gift of God.

An abridgment taken from the Book of Ether also, which is a record of the people of Jared, who were scattered at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people, when they were building a tower to get to heaven—Which is to show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers; and that they may know the covenants of the Lord, that they are not cast off forever— And also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that JESUS is the CHRIST, the ETERNAL GOD, manifesting himself unto all nations—And now, if there are faults they are the mistakes of men; wherefore, condemn not the things of God, that ye may be found spotless at the judgment-seat of Christ.

Organization

The format of the Book of Mormon is similar to the Bible in that there are separate books written by different authors who recorded the interactions of God with people. Generally the book is composed of the following books, though editorial divisions in different churches' editions vary:

The book's sequence is primarily chronological. Notable exceptions include the "Words of Mormon," which is an editorial insertion (authored by Mormon), and the "Book of Ether," which is an abridgement by Moroni of an earlier civilization's record. The books of First Nephi through Omni are first-person narratives, as are Mormon and Moroni. The remainder of the Book of Mormon is a third-person historical narrative, compiled and abridged by Mormon.

The version published by the LDS Church ("The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ"), contains a title page (written by Mormon and Moroni), a modern day introduction written by church leaders, the "Testimony of Three Witnesses," the "Testimony of Eight Witnesses," the "Testimony of the Prophet Joseph Smith" concerning the book, "A brief explanation about the Book of Mormon," chapter headings written by Elder Bruce R. McConkie, an Apostle, a "pronouncing guide" to names and places, footnotes and cross-references to the Bible, and an index.

Investigation of the book

The book invites the reader to make a personal investigation into the veracity of the writings. The invitation is associated with a promise that God will give an undeniable witness of its truthfulness through the Holy Ghost. This can be found in :

"Behold, I would exhort you that when ye shall read these things, if it be wisdom in God that ye should read them, that ye would remember how merciful the Lord hath been unto the children of men, from the creation of Adam even down until the time that ye shall receive these things, and ponder it in your hearts.

"And when ye shall receive these things, I would exhort you that ye would ask God, the Eternal Father, in the name of Christ, if these things are not true; and if ye shall ask with a sincere heart, with real intent, having faith in Christ, he will manifest the truth of it unto you, by the power of the Holy Ghost.

"And by the power of the Holy Ghost ye may know the truth of all things."

Mormons believe that a witness from the Holy Ghost is a very personal event and the experience varies widely. Of those who claim to have received a witness, most consider it to be sacred, to be of great import, and to be the basis of their "testimony". Within Mormonism, the act of telling others of one's spiritual experiences and delcaring one's faith is called "bearing testimony". They believe everyone can emulate Peter, whose testimony of Christ came from the Father (see KJV), by seeking answers and wisdom directly from God (see KJV).

Brief narrative summary

The following dates, people, and named authors are claims made within the Book of Mormon itself. There is no independent verification of the location, author, or time period claims within the text concerning the authorship of the text. See Authorship.

1 Nephi begins in ancient Jerusalem around 600 BC, at roughly the same time as the Book of Jeremiah in the Bible. It tells the story of a prophet, Lehi, his family, and several others as they are led by God from Jerusalem, across the Arabian peninsula, and then to the Americas by ship. The books from 1 Nephi to Omni recount the group's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about 130 BC, in which the community splits into two main groups, the Nephites and the Lamanites, and grow into separate sizeable civilizations that war with each other.

The Words of Mormon, written in AD 385 by Mormon, is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, Helaman, 3 Nephi, and 4 Nephi, all of which he abridged from a large quantity of existing records that detailed his nation's history from the time of Omni to his own life.

3 Nephi is of particular importance because it contains an account of the resurrected and glorified Jesus's visit to the Americas, sometime after his 40-day ministry and ascension into heaven at Jerusalem. During his American ministry, Christ repeated much of the same doctrine and instruction given in the Gospels of the Bible and established an enlightened, peaceful society which endures several generations.

Mormon is an account of the events during Mormon's life, after the enlightened society of 3 Nephi and 4 Nephi deteriorated yet again into warring groups.

Ether is an abridgment of a record of an earlier people by Moroni. The account describes a group of families, headed by a man named Jared and his brother, called in the text "the Brother of Jared," as it is led by God to the Americas. The Jaredite civilization existed on the American continent long before Lehi's family arrived in 600 BC, and it was much larger and more developed. Some have argued that the rise and fall of the Jaredite empire corresponds with that of the Olmec.

Moroni details the final destruction of the Nephites and the idolatrous state of the remaining society. He adds a few spiritual insights and mentions some important doctrinal teachings, then closes with his testimony and an invitation to pray to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account.

The book's major themes

Stated purposes

The purpose of the Book of Mormon, as stated on its original title page, "is to show the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord has done for their fathers" and to convince "Jew and Gentile that Jesus is the Christ, the Eternal God, manifesting himself to all nations."

Another Testament of Christ

The crowning event of the Book of Mormon is the visitation of the resurrected Christ to the Nephites around 34 AD, shortly after his ministry in Jerusalem (3 Nephi 11-26). Every prophet in the book teaches about Jesus.

An angel prophesied to Nephi that Jesus's birth would be 600 years from the time he and his family left Jerusalem (1 Nephi 10:4, 19:8; See 3 Nephi 1). Many prophets in the Book of Mormon, beginning with Lehi and Nephi, saw in visions the birth, ministry, and death of Christ (1 Nephi 11), and were told his name. (Mosiah 3:8). At the time of King Benjamin, the Nephites were called "the children of Christ" (Mosiah 5:7). The faithful members of the church at the time of Captain Moroni (73 BC) were called "Christians" by their enemies, because of their belief in Christ (Alma 46:13-15). For nearly 200 years after the Christ's appearance at the temple in the Americas, the land was filled with peace and prosperity because of the people's obedience to Christ's commandments (4 Nephi). The great prophet-general Mormon worked to convince the faithless people of his time of Christ (360 AD), and Moroni buried the plates with faith in Christ (See title page). Many others also bore witness to the reality of the Messiah.

Some doctrinal teachings

The following teachings are especially notable in the Book of Mormon:

Christ spoke to the Jews in Jerusalem of 'other sheep' (according to the LDS, He was referring to other Hebrews, not Gentiles) who would hear his voice (see KJV), which the Book of Mormon explains meant that the Nephites and other remnants of the lost tribes of Israel throughout the world were to be visited by Christ after his resurrection. The various groups had their own prophets, and each recorded their history and dealings with God. These records will eventually be had among men, and will complement the Bible and Book of Mormon (, , ).
The Old Testament prophet Isaiah prophesied of the coming forth of The Book of Mormon, whose prophets would "whisper out of the dust." (See KJV) (Compare ).
The land of the Jaredites, Nephites, and Lamanites, which is the American continent, is choice above all other lands (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ).
"Inasmuch as ye keep Lord's commandments, ye shall prosper in the land, but inasmuch as ye keep not my commandments, ye shall be cut off from my presence" (; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ).
Men and women are "free to choose liberty and eternal life, through the great Mediator of all men, or to choose captivity and death, according to the captivity and power of the devil; for he seeketh that all men might be miserable like unto himself." ().
All mankind must be born again, for the natural man is an enemy to God until he yields to the holy spirit and is born of Christ, being changed to a state of righteousness, becoming his son or daughter (; ; ; ).
"Adam fell that men might be, and men are, that they might have joy." () Partaking of the fruit of the tree of life, which tree "is the love of God, which sheddeth itself abroad in the hearts of the children of men" and "is the most desirable above all things" will bring the most joy to the soul.(,) *Between death and the resurrection the spirit returns to God and awaits the resurrection in either a place of rest or a place of darkness and torment. At the resurrection, the spirit and body shall be reunited, not one hair of the head shall be lost, and this resurrection shall come to all (; ).
Giving to the poor (charity) is emphasized as a necessary aspect of living the gospel of Christ (; ;). Service to others is essential, and is the same as serving God. ()

Origin of the Book of Mormon

See Linguistics and the Book of Mormon for additional information and analysis on authorship.

Many different parties have differing views on the origin of the Book of Mormon. If the book is what it purports to be then it is an ancient record, compiled and abridged by Mormon of the pre-Colombian Native Americans, recording the generations of his nation and the teachings of ancient Hebrews, translated by Joseph Smith. If not, it was written by Joseph Smith and his associates.

Joseph Smith's own account of the authorship of the Book of Mormon

According to the accounts of Joseph Smith and his associates, the original record was engraved on thin, malleable sheets of metal with the appearance of gold or Brass and bound with three rings at one edge. The leaves were engraved on both sides with considerable skill. According to the account presented in the book, it is an abridgment by Mormon and his son, Moroni (who carried on the work of abridgment after his father's death) at about AD 400, of earlier records. At the end of Moroni's ministry (around AD 421), he hid these gold plates along with several other artifacts in a stone box in a hillside (now named the Hill Cumorah) near Palmyra, New York. (This being assumed because this hill is the location of the site where Joseph uncovered the plates).

On September 22, 1823, Joseph Smith was directed by God through the angel Moroni to the place where the plates were stored. He was not immediately allowed to take them, but after four years was entrusted with them. Through the power of God and two seer stones he was able to translate the characters (according to the Book related to 600 B.C. Egyptian with Hebrew influence ()) into English.

Because the heavy plates were reportedly made of gold (or perhaps gold alloy or gold colored metal), the plates were much sought-after by individuals interested in their monetary value. Joseph admitted that, prior to receiving the plates, he had entertained thoughts of selling them to provide for his family, who were farmers and not particularly wealthy or well-educated.

Joseph Smith claimed he was commanded to show the plates to several people and no one else. Accounts by these individuals are recorded in the front of the Book of Mormon as "The Testimony of Three Witnesses" and "The Testimony of Eight Witnesses." Most of the witnesses at some point became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and the church, but none withdrew their testimony of what they signed. These witnesses have posed logistical issues with skeptics seeking non-miraculous origins of the book.

After translation was complete, the angel again took the plates from Joseph Smith, and no public account of their whereabouts has been made since.

The golden plates were commonly referred to as a "Golden Bible," particularly by non-Mormons, though a few members also used the term in early descriptions. The label "Golden Bible" actually predates the Book of Mormon as legends of such an artifact existed in Canada and upstate New York while Joseph Smith was growing up in Vermont. (Bushman 2005).

See Golden Plates

Joseph Smith as Translator

As can be clearly seen on the title page of the Book of Mormon the book claims to be "written by the hand of Mormon" and that Joseph Smith himself claimed to be the "author and proprietor". In 1830, the only way to secure a copyright for a work, even if it was translated, was to file the application as the "author and proprietor." Thus, Joseph Smith's assertion that he translated the Book of Mormon is consistent with the law of the time and the wording on the title page of the first edition of the book.

Passages from the King James Version of the Bible

A significant segment of the Book of Mormon, namely 2 Nephi chapters 7, 8, and 12-24, matches nearly word-for-word the chapters 50, 51-52:1-2, and 2-14 (respectively) of the King James Translation (1611) of the Book of Isaiah. Whilst this is a point of argument for those who do not accept the divine origin of the Book of Mormon, Latter-day Saints accept these passages as quotations from Isaiah by Nephi. The footnotes and chapter headings acknowledge this and encourage comparisons between Isaiah and 2 Nephi. There are differences in more than half of the 433 verses of Isaiah that are quoted in the Book of Mormon; some minor, some significant. In addition to the possibility of a quotation by Nephi, members also say that Joseph could have referred to the KJV version during the translation, and, as such, the errors in the KJV could have been transferred to the Book of Mormon. The Book of Mormon Institute Manual notes that all prophets, ancient and modern, quote existing scripture as it is known to the people of their time, rather than forming their own translations of the text. It cites the authors of the gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) in quoting scripture to the Greeks as it was known to them, rather than retranslating the originals.

Critics note, however, that there are many word-for-word quotations purportedly taken from the KJV that are no longer accepted in current English translations of the Bible. They are considered as later additions placed by a scribe or monk. The most well-known example is Mark 16:15-18 which is quoted nearly word-for-word in Mormon 9:22-24, the passage concerning believers holding snakes and drinking poison. This passage does not appear in many of the original manuscripts and is widely believed to be composed in the 2nd century.(See Mark 16).

It should be noted that this translation from the plates was made into the 1611 KJV literary and linguistic style, which was no longer commonly used when the translation occurred. Joseph was said to have answered skeptics' questions on the matter with something to the effect of: It would be exceedingly difficult to read one text of scripture in one form of English, and then turn around and read another in another form.

Alternative explanations

Alternative explanations for the authorship of the Book of Mormon have arisen, all of which are disputed by the Church. Most of these explanations challenge the notion of Joseph Smith receiving divine revelations. An incomplete list of alternative origins of the Book of Mormon is given below.

Joseph Smith as Author

Joseph Smith listed himself as "author and proprietor" of the Book of Mormon on the title page of the first (1830) edition of the Book of Mormon. Many critics use this as evidence to demonstrate that Joseph Smith simply wrote the Book of Mormon and later claimed to have translated it. Followers of Smith counter that this was the language of the copyright laws of the timeCopyright Act of 1790, section 3 , and that Smith clarified in the preface of the 1830 edition that he translated the record.

This position tends to be the most commonly-held among Smith's critics (including New Order Mormons and non-Mormons in general). Some Latter-day Saint apologists, such as Hugh Nibley, reject this viewpoint, claiming that it is nearly impossible to write such a book within such a period of time, particularly given that Smith was an unlearned man with little or no knowledge of Hebrew peoples. Forensic evidence is equally debated and remains inconclusive. However, some believe there is evidence to indicate that Joseph Smith had both the capability and resources to accomplish this task (Vogel 2004).

Another way Smith could have written the Book of Mormon was by means of automatic, or spirit writing. This theory was suggested by Scott C. Dunn and others. Automatic writing refers to the ability to write or dictate text in a relatively rapid, seemingly effortless and fluent manner with no sense of control over the content. The content of automatic texts is often similar to that of the Book of Mormon: Examples include multiple authorship, use of archaic language, accounts of bygone historical figures, descriptions of times and places apparently unfamiliar to the writer, narratives with well-developed characters and plot, accounts of various ministries of Jesus Christ, poetics, occasionally impressive literary quality, doctrinal, theological, and cosmological discussions, and even discourses by deity. More importantly, the manner in which Joseph Smith produced the Book of Mormon, and apparently many revelations and other scriptures as well, bears strong resemblance to the process of automatic writing. For example, there is no indication that Smith used notes or outlines or conducted major reworkings of his materials prior to their initial publication. While such conditions are characteristic of a relatively simple translation task, they are also typical of automatic writing. There are many other characteristics of automatic writing shown in the circumstances surrounding the coming forth of the Book of Mormon (American Apocrypha, Signature Books, pg. 17-46).

Smith as a plagiarist of contemporaries

In the early 20th century LDS Seventy B.H. Roberts authored a manuscript entitled Studies of the Book of Mormon, in which he critically examined the claims and origins of the Book of Mormon. In his manuscript, Roberts compared the content of the Book of Mormon with View of the Hebrews, a book written by Ethan Smith (no relation to Joseph), pastor of a church in Poultney, Vermont. View of the Hebrews was published in 1825, some five years before the Book of Mormon and called for recognition of Native Americans as the lost tribes of Israel and for bringing them back into the Christian fold. Speculation regarding the possible origins of the Native Americans was common in the era.

David Persuitte, in his book, Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon, shows extensive parallels between passages in View of the Hebrews and in the Book of Mormon, but notes no instances of direct copying, nor does he demonstrate that Smith ever read or even encountered the book. Had he owned a copy, Smith could be said to have been inspired by View of the Hebrews. However, it is known that Ethan Smith had visited Palmyra in support of his book, so the idea of Joseph Smith being exposed to View of the Hebrews is plausible. However, if such plagiarism did exist, most blame would have to be placed on the shoulders of Oliver Cowdery. Cowdery was educated and trained as a typesetter/printers assistant in the 1800s and worked at the Poultney Gazette in the summer of 1823 (the paper became the Northern Spectator in December of 1823) when Ethan Smith brought the View of the Hebrews manuscript to be published. Soon thereafter Cowdery left the paper and within a few months Joseph Smith had reported the first divine visitation on the equinox (September 21 1823). The obvious connection being that Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Smith were related and often associated together. This employment at the Poultney Gazette would not have been Cowdery's first exposure to View of the Hebrews, his family, including father William and stepmother Keziah, were noted as being longstanding members of Ethan Smith's congregation in Poultney when he arrived and assumed leadership in November 1821. Ethan Smith made no secret of his theories presented in View of the Hebrews during sermons.

Some claim Smith plagiarized material from the manuscript for an unpublished novel by Solomon Spaulding. Spaulding's romantic novel has very little in common with the Book of Mormon. Even the story, which revolves around a group of seafaring Romans who sail to the New World around two millennia ago is not relatable to the Book of Mormon. It is additionally complicated by the two simple facts: first, on the surface the two writings appear to have little in common making thematic plagiarism unlikely; second, the Spaulding manuscript is shorter than thirty pages, while the first edition of the Book of Mormon was nearly six hundred pages, making large-scale passage plagiarisms impossible.

Recently, non-Mormon researcher Thomas Donofrio claims to have found hundreds of parallels between peculiar wordings in the Book of Mormon and the writings of well-known historical and religious figures of the 18th and 19th centuries. Some view such sources as unlikely to have influenced Joseph Smith, given his lack of formal education; others have rebutted this argument by indicating that Smith was resourceful enough to educate himself regarding law, the French language, and at least a rudimentary, though largely inaccurate, familiarity with Egyptian hieroglyphs, as evidenced by his journal entries.

One of Smith's colleagues as author

According to this theory, someone else (either Sidney Rigdon or some other close friend of Smith) wrote the book and allowed Smith to take credit for it. Some consider this theory more probable than the view that Smith wrote the book himself. Both Sidney Rigdon and Oliver Cowdery had more formal education and could have helped Smith author the book. According to one theory, after dictating the primary text, Smith and his scribes would spend the evenings poring over the text, editing and making adjustments. In this case, the Book of Mormon would be considered a collaboration between Smith and his scribes, primarily Oliver Cowdery.

Sidney Rigdon and Oliver Cowdery both denied having written the book, and in fact Cowdery was one of the Three Witnesses to the Book of Mormon. He became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and with the church and was excommunicated in 1838 on a variety of charges, including the never-retracted claim that Smith was an adulterer. Yet the chronically-ill Cowdery never denied his testimony of having seen the golden plates in a vision and a decade later returned to the church. Whatever he may have disagreed with, it is clear he believed the plates were real until the end.

There is also no evidence that Joseph Smith knew of or was in contact with Sidney Rigdon until after the Book of Mormon was published. Most histories state that Parley P. Pratt, a member of Rigdon's congregation near Kirtland, Ohio, was baptized around September 1830 in Palmyra. Soon after, Pratt returned to Ohio, which is when Rigdon learned of Smith and the Book of Mormon and was baptized. According to these accounts, Rigdon first met Smith in December 1830, nine months after the Book of Mormon's publication.

Views of its historicity

Latter Day Saint views

The dominant and widely accepted view among Latter Day Saints is that the Book of Mormon is a true and accurate account of three large, ancient American civilizations whose history it documents. Joseph Smith stated, “I told the brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion, and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book.” (Book of Mormon: Introduction)

Since the time of its publication, it has been common among Latter Day Saints to view and explain the Book of Mormon as a compehensive history of all Native Americans (Mauss 2004); this understanding of the Book of Mormon is referred to as the "hemispheric model." However, other Latter Day Saints believe that the hemispheric model is an assumption not supported by a close reading of the text, nor by the teachings of Joseph Smith, who stated repeatedly that he believed the events in the Book of Mormon took place in Central America. Critics claim that recent DNA studies (disputed by church members — discussed later) show that Native American Indians are primarily descendants of East Asians and they conclude that the hemispheric model is incorrect.

The locations of the cities mentioned in the Book of Mormon are not identifiable. Several groups of Mormon apologists, including the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research (FAIR) and the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), have proposed that the city Zarahemla is located somewhere within Central America because of the description given in as a narrow neck of land bordering sea on the west and on the east. This approach, often referred to as the "Limited Geography Model," argues for a more limited view of the Book of Mormon, suggesting that the book is a history of only a small group of Native Americans in Central America. This theory, presented by Joseph Smith and others as early as 1842, has been gaining substantial support recently because it more accurately represents the descriptions given within the text itself. For instance, the populations and civilizations described in the Book of Mormon were too small (only a few million) to fill entire continents; moreover, there is much evidence that one common assumption of the past (that Book of Mormon civilizations were alone in America) is probably incorrect.

In more recent discourses, church leaders have emphasized that the Book of Mormon is a divine work of a spiritual nature, and its purpose is to teach of Christ; and not to be a taken as a historical, geological, archaeological, or anthropological guide. (For example, see: James E. Faust, “The Keystone of Our Religion,” Ensign, Jan. 2004, 3, available at http://library.lds.org)

Critics' views

Although some Mormon and non-Mormon scholars claim to have found archaeological, cultural and linguistic evidence that the book was an ancient record, their conclusions are not accepted by the majority of scholars. Researchers and LDS apologists point to the available history of the several major civilizations in Mesoamerica in the Book of Mormon time period (Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, Zapotec and Aztec) where there is ample archaeological data and some recorded history. Some of these were very advanced in language, writing, mathematics and astronomy. Furthermore, ample evidence has been uncovered of the types of plants, animals and implements available to the early inhabitants. The Book of Mormon makes multiple reference to plants, animals, weapons and technology, many of which do not match current knowledge concerning that time period. For example, multiple references to horses appear throughout the Book of Mormon; in actuality, there is no evidence of horses during that period of Pre-Columbian America and indeed were reintroduced by the conquistadores into the habitat. While one can argue there is a possibility of earlier introductions having died off, the propensity for formerly domesticated horses to group together in Wild Horse herds, such as after major regional wars, and subsequently prosper on their own would seem to contradict that. The original North American wild horse which crossed the Bering land bridge during the last Ice Age died out around 8,000 years ago. Interestingly, neither the much earlier proto-Ainu pre-Clovis peoples nor Eurasian-derived Clovis peoples appeared to have domesticated them in the Americas prior to this extinction.

LDS Funded Archaeology

Returning to the arguments concerning archaeological findings, it is incorrect to assume that LDS scholars have never tried to prove historicity. On the contrary, there have been numerous attempts in the past and current research in process currently. In 1951 Thomas Ferguson, a devoted LDS member, petitioned Mormon President David O. McKay to financially back the founding of the New World Archeological Foundation (hereafter NWAF). Ferguson requested at first a 5 year funding grant to dig throughout Mesoamerica for evidence of the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims. His persistence paid off and the first five years were funded from 1955 to 1959. At the end of this period, additional funding was granted and continues to this day.

In a 1961 newsletter Ferguson predicted that although nothing had been found, the Book of Mormon cities would be found in 10 years. Eleven years later in 1972 LDS member Hal Hougey wrote Ferguson questioning the progress given the stated timetable in which the cities would be found. Replying to Hougey as well as secular and non-secular requests, Ferguson wrote in a letter dated 5 June 1972: "Ten years have passed... I had sincerely hoped that Book-of-Mormon(sic) cities would be positively identified within 10 years — and time has proved me wrong in my anticipation."

During the period of 1959-1961, NWAF colleague Dee Green was editor of the BYU Archeological Society Newsletter and had an article from it published in the summer of 1969 edition of Dialogue: A journal of Mormon Thought, pp76-78 in which he acknowledged that the NWAF findings did not back up the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims. After this article and another six years of fruitless search, Thomas Ferguson published a 29 page paper in 1975 entitled Written Symposium on Book-of-Mormon Geography: Response of Thomas S. Ferguson to the Norman & Sorenson Papers. The full text will be omitted here, but he summed up as thus on page 29: "I'm afraid that up to this point, I must agree with Dee Green, who has told us that to date there is no Book-of-Mormon geography..."

Ferguson wrote a 20 February 1976 letter to Mr & Mrs H.W. Lawrence in which he stated: "...The real implication of the paper is that you can't set the Book-of-Mormon geography down anywhere — because it is fictional and will never meet the requirements of the dirt-archeology. I should say — what is in the ground will never conform to what is in the book." //www.utlm.org/newsletters/no76.htm#Ferguson's%20Rejection //www.utlm.org/images/ferguson/bomnevermeetdirtarcheology.gif

This is not to say the NWAF has found nothing. Quite the opposite, the archaeological investigations of NWAF-sponsored projects have contributed towards the documentation and understanding of pre-Columbian societies, particularly in Mesoamerica. Currently BYU maintains 86 documents on the work of the NWAF at the BYU NWAF website and these documents are used outside both BYU and the LDS church by researchers.

Archaeology

Main arguments against the Book of Mormon are made on an archaeological basis based on the large size and the long time span of Book of Mormon civilizations. The size and the span of Book of Mormon civilizations is comparable to the size and span of other great, ancient civilizations that are archaeologically highly prominent. More arguments arise when considering the statements in the Book of Mormon about animals such as horses, cattle, swine, goats, etc; crops such as wheat; and technology such as steel swords and possibly wheeled chariots that are currently not found in the pre-Columbian archaeological record.

Mormon critics often point to lacking evidence supporting all of Book of Mormon claims. Apologists often counterargue that Mesoamerican archaeology is a young field and that evidence will eventually surface. One example of supposedly lacking evidence is that although horses lived in the ancient americas, they went extinct by the time of Book of Mormon. Another example of evidence once believed lacking, now found is that the Book of Mormon referred to elephants (Ether 9:19) being brought to America by one of the groups. This claim was refuted by critics as absurd until 1903 when, according to American Antiquarian, 25:395-397, Dr. Nicholas Leon unearthed elephant bones near the town of Paredon, north of the City of Mexico ^*. Currently, some of the book's claims are substantiated, however, a good deal of them are problematic from a dating perspective - some, such as horses (mentioned above), existed in the Americas, but not during the Book of Mormon time period.

Linguistics

An additional criticism concerns linguistics. The Nephites, and possibly the Lamanites, would have spoken a modified Semitic language up to at least AD 400, where the Book of Mormon stops. However, no spoken Semitic language has survived in the Americas to modern times. Critics argue that the 1,000 years after the end of the period covered in the Book of Mormon do not suffice to account for the difference among Native American languages nor for their complete distance from Semitic languages. A common counterargument is that the Book of Mormon mentions contact with other civilizations (Omni 1:12-18, Mosiah 24:1-4) with their own non-Semitic languages that might have influenced or supplanted any Semitic language being spoken.

DNA

Recent studies have claimed that Native Americans do not have certain genetic markers in common with modern Middle Eastern DNA samples, and genetic research shows that they are more closely related to people in Asia than anywhere else. These studies have come mainly from Thomas Murphy and Simon Southerton. Critics claim this contradicts the statement found in the introduction of the current edition of the Book of Mormon, which says that the Lamanites, descendants of Hebrews, are the "principal ancestors" of Native Americans, however there is no claim that they are the sole ancestors. There are three different people who are mentioned, of which one may be Asian.

In response to these arguments, David Stewart states that the studies fail to account for the fact that ancient Israelite DNA would be vastly different from their modern DNA. He also said that mtDNA testing, which was the cornerstone in both studies, cannot even link different Jewish groups let alone compare them to American Indians faithfully. He concluded that the studies take a very limited and biased approach in order to control the outcome and that the studies ignore other basic DNA facts in order to come to their biased conclusion. This criticism of the science is not generally accepted outside of Mormonism, because a similar migration of Jewish people to Africa, the Lemba was recently genetically verified (via DNA markers) - see Lemba people. The Lemba also have a large percentage of genes often found in non-Arab Semites. However, it must be stated that this was not done using mtDNA, but rather the Cohen modal haplotype. A Dr. Soodyall notes that "using mtDNA the Lemba were indistinguishable from other Bantu-speaking groups." However, aside from their language the Lemba have distinctly Jewish traditions. It is also still debated as to when exactly this gene pool migrated to Africa, possibly in the modern era after Christ rather than in the same era as Lehi as some have asserted.

This ancient DNA research of pre-Columbian DNA (and comparison of it with ancient DNA from mediterranean excavations) is in excellent agreement with earlier archeological and lingustic facts supporting mongoloid (versus mediterranean) origin of Native Americans. Study of ancient DNA of food, intestinal bacteria, dogs, pollen, etc in the Americas points to the same conclusion: no traces of large technologically advanced civilization of mediterranean origin were found in Americas. Critics assert that this is inconsistent with the Book of Mormon descriptions of large long lasting civilizations.

Smithsonian Institution statement on the Book of Mormon

The Smithsonian Institution issues a standard reply to requests for their opinion regarding the Book of Mormon as an archaealogical or scientific guide. In 1998, the Smithsonian revised the letter to remove its detailed response and limited its comment to briefly deny any use of the Book of Mormon as an archaeological guide by the institution. [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/smithsonian.shtml#update.

Role of the Book of Mormon in Mormonism

Joseph Smith said, “I told the brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion, and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book” (History of the Church 4:461). The Book of Mormon is of prime importance to the church as one of the greatest differentiating factors of the Church as well as a spiritual foundation. It is held as a tangible evidence of the truthfulness of the church.

Members of the Church hold the Book of Mormon as the most important, correct, and basic book of scripture. Not placing enough emphasis on the Book of Mormon or ignoring it all together was decried in a revelation to Joseph Smith that pronounced a condemnation on the "whole church" for treating it “lightly,” until they should “repent and remember the new covenant, even the Book of Mormon and the former commandments which I Lord have given them, not only to say, but to do according to that which I have written, that they may bring forth fruit meet for their Father’s kingdom” (Doctrine and Covenants 84:55-58). While this revelation also applies to the early Church’s under-emphasis of the Bible (“the former commandments which Lord had given them”), the importance of studying the Book of Mormon has also been stressed by every church president since Joseph Smith, Jr..

The Book of Mormon’s significance was reiterated in the late 20th century by Ezra Taft Benson, Apostle and 13th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In an August 2005 Ensign message, current LDS President Gordon B. Hinckley challenged each member of the church to reread the Book of Mormon again before year end. The book’s importance is commonly stressed at the twice-yearly General Conference and at special devotionals by General Authorities in the First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and the several Quorums of the Seventy.

Claimed differences between the Book of Mormon and Latter-day Saint doctrine

Critics of Mormonism argue that the teachings of the Book of Mormon are not entirely consistent with Mormon (and/or more specifically, LDS) doctrine. The following passages appear to most critics to conflict with Mormon (and more specifically, LDS) doctrines:

The Father and the Son are one God (). Critics argue that this means the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit cannot be three individuals, as is claimed in Doctrine and Covenants 130:22. However, members of the church claim that this scripture is describing Christ and his mission, not all members of the Godhead, and that this interpretation fails to consider the context of the passage(Reading verses 1-5 of the chapter gives a more accurate understanding).
Critics argue that the doctrine of plural marriage contradicts the Book of Mormon by stating that forbids the practice in its entirety. Members of the church argue that critics also fail to mention that polygamy was acceptable in the Old Testament, and even sanctioned by God (); and that critics fail to consider the whole context of what Jacob said concerning polygamy:

"I the Lord God will not suffer that this people shall do like unto them of old. Wherefore, my bretheren, hear me, and hearken to the word of the Lord: For there shall not any man among you have save it be one wife; and concubines he shall have none. For I, the Lord God, delight in the chastity of women. And whoredoms are an abomination before me; thus saith the Lord of Hosts. Wherefore, this people shall keep my commandments, saith the Lord of Hosts, or cursed be the land for their sakes. For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise they shall hearken unto these things." ().

Current members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the Lord commanded polygamy for a time as permitted by the ending clause, for raising up seed in a time of hardship, but when the 1890 Manifesto revoked that commandment, the Church began to excommunicate members who entered into polygamous relationships. Polygamy is not preached as being essential to salvation, merely accepted in times commanded of God, see above quote as well as -- (D&C 132 Doctrine and Covenants), and current revelation defers to the restrictions of U.S. legal canon in regard to its practice.

Book of Mormon Editions

The Book of Mormon is published today in the following forms:

by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints under the expanded title The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ (since 1982)
for the Community of Christ by Herald House as The Book of Mormon - Revised Authorized Version (1966) and The Book of Mormon - Authorized Version (1908)
by the Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) as The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates taken from the Plates of Nephi — an original edition compiled by a committee made up of Church of Jesus Christ apostles Thurman S. Furnier, Charles Ashton and William H. Cadman
for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin — a photo enlarged facsimile of the 1840 edition
by Zarahemla Research Foundation as The Book of Mormon - Restored Covenant Edition
by the University of Illinois Press as The Book of Mormon: A Reader's Edition (2003) (this edition is based on the 1920 LDS edition)
by Doubleday under the title The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ (2004)
by Herald Heritage (Herald House) (1970) 1830 Facsimile copy reproduction.
by ExperiencePress.org (2006) Two true reprints of the 1830 edition. The type was reset to match word, line & page the text of the original 1830 edition with one categorical exception: all known original typographical errors were corrected. ^*

One critic has claimed to have documented almost 4,000 changes. 3913 Changes in The Book of Mormon Jerald and Sandra Tanner A portion of these changes have been discussed in official Church publications including the Ensign, Improvement Era, Millennial Star and Times and Seasons, and are consistent with early pre- and post-publication edits made by Joseph Smith. Some corrections were made due to earlier print or copy errors, or changes in punctuation. See Linguistics and the Book of Mormon.

References

Bushman, Richard L.. 2005. Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. New York: Alfred Knopf. ISBN 1400042704
Givens, Terryl. 2002. By the Hand of Mormon: The American Scripture That Launched a New World Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195168887
Mauss, Armand L. 2003. All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252028031
Persuitte, David. Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon, second edition, McFarland & Company (2000), trade paperback, 325 pages, ISBN 078640826X
Vogel, Dan. 2004. Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. ISBN 1560851791

The Book of Mormon in Popular Culture

In the South Park episode All About Mormons, Trey Parker and Matt Stone parodied the origins of the Book of Mormon.

External links

Links to texts

Book of Mormon (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Edition)
Book of Mormon (RLDS 1908 Authorized Edition)
Book of Mormon in mp3 format (free download, no registration, 32 kbit/s)
Audio Book of Mormon in mp3 format (free download, reg. required)

Links to articles about

Official sources

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Official Website)

Sympathetic views

Book of Mormon Evidences
Book of Mormon Information
A short introduction to the Book of Mormon
Book of Mormon Research from the Book of Mormon Foundation
Book of Mormon Archive-Archeology, Evidence, Study Materials, Rebuttals from the Abundant Life Fellowship^*
Editions of The Book of Mormon
Book of Mormon Manuscripts

Critical views

Humor

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