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The Book of Abraham is a text published as part of the Pearl of Great Price, one of the four canonical scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Originally published by Joseph Smith, Jr., Mormons believe it to be a historically accurate translation of the writings of Abraham. The book is a source of distinctive Latter-day Saint doctrines such as the exaltation of man, plurality of gods, priesthood, and pre-mortal existence. Other Latter Day Saint denominations, such as the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), do not consider the book to be canonical. Based on the rediscovered source material of the Book of Abraham, Egyptologists have found that the illustrations and the original text of the Book of Abraham describe events in the afterlife of deceased Egyptians which is consistent with other historical and archaeological evidence.

Origin

The work is based on a set of Egyptian papyri that Joseph Smith obtained in July 1835 which he described as

"A Translation of some Ancient Records that have fallen into our hands, from the Catacombs of Egypt, purporting to be the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt".See History of the Church, vol. 2, pp. 235, 236, 348-351

An Irishman named Michael Chandler had brought a travelling exhibition of four Egyptian mummies and papyri to Kirtland, Ohio, then home of the Mormons. The papyri contained Egyptian hieroglyphics. Joseph Smith examined the scrolls in the exhibit and noted that some of the text was recognizable because of their similarity to the text from the golden plates of the Book of Mormon. The church purchased the four mummies and the papyri for $2400.

After closer examination, Smith declared

"... with W. W. Phelps and Oliver Cowdery as scribes, I commenced the translation of some of the characters or hieroglyphics, and much to our joy found that one of the rolls contained the writings of Abraham, another the writings of Joseph of Egypt, etc. -- a more full account of which will appear in its place, as I proceed to examine or unfold them. "History of the Church, Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 236. July 1835

During the remainder of July, Joseph Smith said that he

"... was continually engaged in translating an alphabet to the Book of Abraham, and arranging a grammar of the Egyptian language as practiced by the ancients."History of the Church, Vol. 2, Ch. 17, p. 238

He proceeded to dictate a translation.

The ability to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs stems from the discovery in 1799 of the Rosetta Stone, a large granite tablet which contained a message written in two languages, Egyptian and Greek. Since Greek was well known, the stone made the translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs possible for the first time since antiquity. However, this knowledge was not well disseminated to the United States at the time Joseph Smith made his translation, hence his translated text could not be verified by scholars for accuracy.

Content

The Book of Abraham has five chapters. Chapters 1 through 2 include details about Abraham’s early life and his fight against the idolatry of his society and even of his own family. It recounts how pagan priests tried to sacrifice him to their god, but an angel appeared and rescued him. Chapter 2 includes information about God’s covenant with Abraham, and how it would be fulfilled. Chapters 3 through 5 are a vision in which God reveals much about astronomy, the creation of the world, and the creation of man.http://www.mormonwiki.com/mormonism/Book_of_Abraham

The account of Abraham's life is similar to the account given in the Book of Jasher (not to be confused with Pseudo-Jasher) as it relates to Abraham's relationship with his dealings with idolotry, travels and his father (see for example, Jasher 8:9-36; 9:1-19; 12; 13). Another interesting parallel is found in the text of the Apocalypse of Abraham, both accounts containing records of the vision Abraham had while looking at the stars (Jasher 8:1-10; 8:17-18; Apocalypse 1:14, 25-33).

The facsimiles and their interpretations

At least two artists, including woodcutter Reuben Hedlock created facsimiles of three funerary vignettes which were part of the papyri collection found with the mummies. These facsimiles, which include hieroglyphics and hieratic writing, were originally published in serials in the Mormon newspaper Times and Seasons in Nauvoo, Illinois. They were published in conjunction with the Book of Abraham.

Of the four carvings of the Book of Abraham facsimiles that were printed, most Mormon scholars believe the earliest is the most accurate reproduction of the original vignette (the one used between 1928 and 1978 being the least accurate and likely based on fragments that were damaged after the church purchased the documents).

The book and its facsimiles were republished by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as part of the Pearl of Great Price in Liverpool, England, in 1852; this volume was canonized in October 1880.

For each of the facsimiles, Joseph Smith offered a detailed explanation or interpretation of various elements on the papyrus and fragments. Non-LDS Egyptologists disagree with Smith's interpretations of the ancient Egyptian iconography and writings found on these facsimiles. Klaus Baer, "The Breathing Permit of Hor," Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 (Autumn 1968):117-19. See also Edward H. Ashment, "The Book of Abraham Facsimiles: A Reappraisal, Sunstone 4-6 (1979): 33-48 and Stephen E. Thompson, "Egyptology and the Book of Abraham", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 28/1 (1995): 143-160 Some believe that under his direction missing or destroyed portions of the fragments were restored in order to make the image complete and aesthetically pleasing.

Facsimile No. 1

According to Smith’s interpretation, this depicts the attempted human sacrifice of Abraham. Abraham is fastened to an altar with the “idolatrous priest of Elkenah” about to sacrifice him. He interpreted the four shapes underneath the altar as four idolatrous gods with the names Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, and Korash.http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_1

Egyptologists note that the four shapes represent four canopic jars. The facsimile, they say, shows the embalming procedure or the creation of a mummy. Canopic jars are used to hold the viscera of the mummified corpse. The four sons of Horus are normally depicted on the jars, each son shown (from left to right) as a human, a baboon, a jackal, and a falcon, named Imset, Hapi, Duamatef and Qebehsenuf.Richard A. Parker, The Joseph Smith Papyri: A Preliminary Report, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Summer 1968, p. 86 Examples of such jars can be found in various art museums.For example, see http://www.dia.org/collections/Ancient/egypt/70.619-.622.html

Facsimile No. 2

Smith gave intrepretations for several figures in this facsimile. The central figure represented Kolob, the star closest to the residence of God. He gave other astronomical interpretations for some of the figures and for the others he stated that their interpretations “will be given in the own due time of the Lord”.http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_2

For Egyptologists, this figure is a hypocephalus. It is placed under the head of the deceased in case he forgot some of the personalized detail needed to know what to say and how to behave in relation to 'gods' and trials after death. These personalized instructions often accompany the Book of the Dead, but are either over-generalized in its text or passed over completely in highly individualized Books of the Dead.

Facsimile No. 3

Smith believed this image represents Abraham sitting on the Pharaoh's throne teaching the principles of astronomy to the Egyptian court. The figure behind Abraham is Pharaoh. The figure before Abraham is the prince of Pharaoh. The dark character is Olimlah, a slave, and in between is Shulem one of Pharaoh’s waiters.http://scriptures.lds.org/abr/fac_3

Egyptologists interpret this as the judgment of the dead before the occupied throne of the Egyptian god, Osiris.See for example http://nefertiti.iwebland.com/funerary_practices/judgment.htm The picture of Osiris shows his typical headdress or crown and his arms are placed in a typical position in which he holds a sceptre and a flail. Examples can be found in several tombs.See http://www.historylink101.net/egypt_1/gods_osiris.htm In front of Osiris, but with her face turned away, is Maàt, the Egyptian goddess of justice, truth and order wearing her traditional feather on her head.

Rediscovery of the papyrus scrolls

After Joseph Smith's death, the Egyptian artifacts were held principally by his mother, Lucy Mack Smith, and after her death on May 14, 1856, by his widow, Emma Hale Smith. On May 25, 1856, Emma sold four Egyptian mummies with the records with them to Mr. Abel Combs.The Improvement Era, Jan. 1968, pp. 12-16 Combs then sold two mummies with some papyri, which were sent to the St. Louis Museum. In 1863 they went to the Chicago Museum, where they were apparently burned in the Great Chicago Fire. The fate of Combs's two other mummies is unknown, but some papyri survived. In 1918 Mrs. Alice Heusser of Brooklyn, a daughter of Combs's housekeeper, approached the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) with the papyri. In 1947 the MMA acquired them from her widower. Aziz S. Atiya of the University of Utah found eleven of these fragments in May 1966.Jay Todd, "Papyri, Joseph Smith”, Encyclopedia of Mormonism Vol. 3 The papyri were fragmentary, of origin from the late Ptolemaic period, and of very familiar Egyptian texts. Thus they were of little value to a museum. According to Dr. Henry G. Fischer, curator of the Egyptian Collection at the MMA, an anonymous donation to the MMA made it possible for the church to acquire the papyri."The Facsimile Found: The Recovery of Joseph Smith's Papyrus Manuscripts", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought (Winter 1967), p. 64

It was clear that Smith had once owned these papyri because the back of the papyrus fragments were pasted down to paper with "drawings of a temple and maps of the Kirtland, Ohio area." There was also an affidavit from Emma Smith that these papyri had been in the possession of Joseph Smith.The Deseret News, Salt Lake City, November 27, 1967

With the rediscovery of these papyri, fragments of the original Egyptian text from which Joseph Smith translated the Book of Abraham appeared to have been recovered. Also the illustrations including the original of facsimile 1 were now available to professional Egyptologists for analysis.

The Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS), an institution supported by the church, is producing a series of conferences and publications on the Joseph Smith papyri and the Book of Abraham.See http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=insights&id=401

Analysis of the Joseph Smith papyri

Upon the return of the papyri in November 1967, the LDS church asked Hugh Nibley, a professor of Religious History at the church-supported Brigham Young University to study them. Hugh Nibley was a scholar of scriptures and languages, but he was not an Egyptologist nor an expert in the Egyptian language. The LDS church published sepia photographs of the papyri in its church magazine although a translation was not provided.The Improvement Era, February 1968 Instead, the editors of an independent quarterly journal among Latter-day Saint academic circles, Dialogue , requested a translation of the papyri on the basis of these photographs from three distinguished American Egyptologists, Dr. John A. Wilson (University of Chicago, Oriental Institute), Dr. Klaus Baer (University of Chicago, Oriental Institute), and Professor Richard Parker (Director of the Department of Egyptology, Brown University).Abstract of "The Joseph Smith Egyptian Papyri", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Summer 1968, p. 67 and Robert K. Ritner, "The ‘Breathing Permit of Hôr’ Thirty-four Years Later" Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 33 (Winter 2000) p. 97 They produced translations that were published in the journal in 1968.

The Book of Abraham papyrus scroll containing facsimile 1 is divided into three parts. Dr. Klaus Baer was the first person to publish a translation of the writing flanking the original of facsimile 1. His translation is as follows:

"… the prophet of Amonrasonter, prophet of Min Bull-of-his-Mother, prophet *… Tikhebyt, justified. May your ba live among them, and may you be buried in the West…May you give him a good, splendid burial on the West of Thebes just like…"Klaus Baer, "The Breathing Permit of Hor," Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 (Autumn 1968):116-17

Hor is the name of the mummified deceased and Tikhebyt is the name of Hor’s mother. The ba is his spirit. Updated translations consistent with Klaus Baer have been provided by others including BYU researcher Michael D. RhodesMichael D. Rhodes, The Hor Book of Breathings: A Translation and Commentary Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Brigham Young University, 2002, 21, 23, BYU Egyptologist, John Gee John Gee, The Ancient Owners of the Joseph Smith Papyri Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1999, 5, and another University of Chicago Egyptologist, Robert K. RitnerRobert K. Ritner, "'The Breathing Permit of Hôr' Among the Joseph Smith Papyri," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 169 (July 2003).

The middle section of the Book of Abraham papyrus following facsimile 1 was initially translated by Richard Parker of Brown University. His translation is as follows:

"this great pool of Khonsu Hor, justified, born of Taykhebyt, a man likewise. After (his) two arms are to his breast, one wraps the Book of Breathings, which is with writing both inside and outside of it, with royal linen, it being placed (at) his left arm near his heart, this having been done at his wrapping and outside it. If this book be recited for him, then he will breath like the soul[s of the gods for ever and ever."Richard A. Parker, "The Joseph Smith Papyri: A Preliminary Report", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Summer 1968, p. 98.

Translations of this section have also been made by BaerKlaus Baer, "The Breathing Permit of Hor", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 1968:119-20, NibleyHugh Nibley, The Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An Egyptian Endowment Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1975, 19-23, and RitnerRobert K. Ritner, "'The Breathing Permit of Hôr' Among the Joseph Smith Papyri," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 169-170 (July 2003) and they are consistent with Parker's.

For the third section, Klaus Baer noted that Hor’s Book of Breathings would end with facsimile 3, however the vignette is missing or lost in the original papyrus. Using the facsimile, the following translations have been made by Robert K. RitnerRobert K. Ritner, "'The Breathing Permit of Hôr' Among the Joseph Smith Papyri," Journal of Near Eastern Studies 176-177 (July 2003).

Label for Osiris (text to the right of figure 1 of facsimile 3):

"Recitation by Osiris, Foremost of the Westerners, Lord of Abydos(?), the great god forever and ever(?)."

Label for Isis (text to the right of figure 2 of facsimile 3):

"Isis the great, the god's mother."

Label for Maat (text to the left of figure 4 of facsimile 3):

"Maat, mistress of the gods."

Label for Hor the deceased (text in front of figure 5 of facsimile 3):

"The Osiris Hor, justified forever. "

Label for Anubis (text in front of figure 6 of facsimile 3):

"Recitation by Anubis, who makes protection(?), foremost of the embalming booth,…"

Invocation (text at bottom line below the illustration):

"O gods of the necropolis, gods of the caverns, gods of the south, north, west, and east grant salvation to the Osiris Hor, the justified, born by Taikhibit."

The link of facsimile 3 with facsimile 1 and the papyrus scroll is established by the translation of the name of the deceased, Hor and the name of his mother, Taikhibit . Another translation of facsimile 3 has been made by RhodesMichael D. Rhodes, The Hor Book of Breathings: A Translation and Commentary Utah: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, Brigham Young University, 2002, 25 which is consistent with Ritner's.

Criticism and response

The identification of texts is used by critics as evidence against the Book of Abraham's authenticity. The main arguments are:

  • Both the recovered papyri and the facsimiles published with the Book of Abraham bear no direct connection, either historical or textual, to Abraham. Abraham's name does not appear anywhere in the papyri or the facsimiles.Edward H. Ashment "Joseph Smith’s Identification of ‘Abraham’ in Papyrus JS 1, ‘The Breathing Permit of Hor.’" Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought (Winter 2000) p. 126. See also translations by Ritner, op. cit., Baer, op. cit., and Parker, op. cit.
  • Joseph Smith’s interpretation of the facsimiles do not bear any similarity to modern Egyptologists' translations of the text in these figures.
  • The Joseph Smith Papyri have been determined to be from the late Ptolemaic or early Roman period which is at least 1500 years after Abraham’s lifetime.Klaus Baer, "The Breathing Permit of Hor," Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 3 (Autumn 1968):111 and Richard A. Parker, The Joseph Smith Papyri: A Preliminary Report, Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Summer 1968, p. 98. Also in Hugh Nibley, The Message of the Joseph Smith Papyri: An Egyptian Endowment, Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1975, p. 3, where Nibley noted the 1st century A.D. for the dating of the papyrus. See also Michael D. Rhodes, The Ensign, July 1988, pp. 51-53. This fact contradicts the introduction to the Book of Abraham, which states that the book represents “The writings of Abraham while he was in Egypt, called the book of Abraham, written by his own hand, upon papyrus”.See History of the Church, vol. 2, pp. 235, 236, 348-351
  • Anachronisms exist in the Book of Abraham which indicate that it was not written in Abraham’s time.Stephen E. Thompson, "Egyptology and the Book of Abraham", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 28/1 (Spring 1995): 152-156. Thompson notes at least "four anachronistic names in the text; Chaldea, Potiphar, Egyptus, and probably Pharaoh".
  • Joseph Smith kept in his personal diary an “Egyptian Alphabet and Grammar” which demonstrates his inability to translate Egyptian hieroglyphs.See http://www.xmission.com/~research/about/alphabet.htm

Mormon apologists have presented a number of theories in defense of the authenticity of the Book of Abraham. The most popular theories argue the following:

  • The remaining papyrus fragments are not the ones Smith used to translate the Book of Abraham. Critics respond noting that facsimile 1 matches the vignette in the Joseph Smith Papyri and there is a direct reference in the Book of Abraham to facsimile 1.Stephen E. Thompson, "Egyptology and the Book of Abraham", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 28/1 (Spring 1995): 154. The link between the Book of Abraham text and facsimile 1 can be found in Abraham 1:12-14, where Abraham purportedly wrote, "... I will refer you to the representation at the commencement of this record. It was made after the form of a bedstead, such as was had among the Chaldeans, and it stood before the gods of Elkenah, Libnah, Mahmackrah, Korash, and also a god like unto that of Pharaoh, king of Egypt. That you may have an understanding of these gods, I have given you the fashion of them in the figures at the beginning, which manner of figures is called by the Chaldeans Rahleenos, which signifies hieroglyphics."
  • The scrolls may have merely been a starting point for Smith's reconstruction of Abraham's original writings, which Smith did not have access to or had been destroyed, although Smith claimed that the scrolls were in fact written by Abraham himself.
  • Joseph Smith, contrary to his own account of the origin of the book of Abraham, may have received the account by revelation, rather than a standard "translation" of text from one language to another, in a process similar to his translation of the Bible. Critics note that the revelation theory does not resolve the problem concerning his unusual translations of the facsimiles as published with the Book of Abraham.
  • Abraham's writings may be esoterically encoded within the Egyptian funerary scrolls.
  • Egyptian mythology could be based on true events linked to judeo-christian writings, and God allowed him to see through the watering down of the original text.

Interpretations and contributions to Mormonism

The text of the book of Abraham provides justification for important Mormon doctrines, including the exaltation of man, plurality of gods, priesthood, and pre-mortal existence. Some of these justifications are not found in any of the other canonized scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

The Community of Christ has not accepted the Book of Abraham as canonical. In 1896, the leaders of the church at the time, Joseph Smith III and Herman C. Smith declared,

"The church has never to our knowledge taken any action on this work, either to indorse or condemn; so it cannot be said to be a church publication; nor can the church be held to answer for the correctness of its teaching. Joseph Smith, as the translator, is committed of course to the correctness of the translation, but not necessarily to the indorsement [sic of its historical or doctrinal contents." Joseph Smith III and Herman C. Smith, The History of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, Vol. II, p. 569, Lamoni, Iowa: Herald Publishing House, 1896

Notes or footnotes

Further reading

  1. Smith, Milan D., Jr. “`That Is the Handwriting of Abraham.’” Dialogue 23 (4) Winter 1990: 167-169. (Offers evidence against the revelation theory and for translation, also discusses Egyptian Alphabet).

External links

Neutral perspectives

Supportive perspectives

Critical perspectives

Latter Day Saint texts | Buch Abraham

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Book of Abraham".

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