The Battle of Ctesiphon took place in May 29, 363 between the Roman Emperor Julian and the Sassanid Emperor Shapur II outside the walls of Ctesiphon, the Persian capital. The battle was an inconclusive Roman victory, as Julian was killed after battle and the Roman forces were far from their supply lines.

Background

---

On November 3, 361 Constantius II died at Tarsus, leaving Julian the Apostate as sole emperor of Rome. Arriving at Constantinople to oversee Constantius' burial, Julian soon began to repair the damage done, reorganizing and streamlining the government.

However, Shapur II of Persia posed a greater threat. After a number of his first inconclusive campaign, the Persian emperor, in his second campaign against Romans had captured Amida in 359, controlling the headwaters of the Tigris and the entrance to Asia Minor from the east. A Roman offensive was desperately needed to halt Shapur.

Julian, believing himself to be the next Alexander the Great, began preparing for an expedition against the Sassanid dynasty, moving from Constantinople. In the summer of 362 he transferred his capital to Antioch and on March 5, 363, set out with 90,000 men while Sassanid King Shapur along with the main Persian army, spah, was away from Ctesiphon. Julian sent 30,000 soldiers, under the command of Procopius to Armenia, with the aim to obtain support from the King of Armenia.

The battle

---

Shapur ordered for a scorched earth policy to his governors til he with the main Persian army reach to the Sassanid capital , Ctesiphon. However after a few minor skirmishes and sieges Julian arrived with his undefeated army before Shapur II to the walls of Ctesiphon on May 29. Outside the walls a Persian army under Spahbod Merena was formed up for battle across the Tigris.

Julian's subordinate commanders were nervous, as the Persian army featured cataphracts in the centre and the formidable clibanarii on the wings. There were also war elephants and masses of infantry to the rear. However, Julian had already shown himself to be an excellent general and did not share his subordinates’ worries. Instead, he drew up his army in a crescent and crossed the river to engage the enemy.

The wings of the Romans advanced swiftly and battle was joined. Contrary to expectations, the battle was a stunning victory for the Romans, losing only 70 men to the Persians 2,500 men.

However, Julian lacked the equipment to lay siege to Ctesiphon and Shapur along with Sassanid main army, far larger than the one Julian had just defeated was closing in quickly. Julian was in favour of advancing further into Persian territory. He was overruled by his officers. Roman morale was low, disease was spreading, and there was very little forage around.

Death of Emperor Julian

---

Reluctantly, Julian agreed to retreat back along the Tigris and meet up with the other half of his army. On June 16, the retreat began and ten days later, outside Samarra, the army’s rearguard came under heavy attack.

Not even pausing to put on his armour, Julian plunged into the fray shouting encouragement to his men. He was so confident of victory — or merely eager and forgetful — that he was not wearing armour. Just as the Persians were beginning to pull out with heavy losses, Julian was struck in the side by a flying spear. Pulling it out of his liver he died before midnight. Considered apocryphal is the report that his dying words were "Vicisti, Galilæe" ("Thou hast conquered, Galilean"), supposedly expressing his recognition that, with his death, Christianity would become the Empire's state religion.

Libanius states that Julian was assassinated by a Christian who was one of his own soldiers; this charge is not corroborated by Ammianus Marcellinus or other contemporary historians.

Aftermath

---

Julian was succeeded by the short-lived Emperor Jovian. As the Roman army was deep inside Sassanid territory, Jovian was forced to make peace on unfavourable terms, in order to lead his troops back to friendly territory. The peace terms required that the districts on the Tigris and Nisibis (total of five Roman provinces) were ceded to the Persians, and the Romans promised to interfere no more in Armenia.

In the rock-sculptures near the town Bishapur in Persis, the great success is represented; under the hoofs of the king's horse lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a suppliant Roman, the Emperor Jovian, asks for peace.

References

---

Battles of the Roman Empire | Battles of the Sassanid Empire