article

Appropriate technology is technology that is most appropriate to the environment and culture it is intended to support. It is suitable for use in developing nations or underdeveloped rural areas of industrialized nations, which may lack the money and specialised expertise to operate and maintain high technology. In practice, it is often something that might be described as using the simplest and most benign level of technology that can effectively achieve the intended purpose in a particular location.

The terminology is not very precise. Isolated rural communities in developed nations may also benefit by using some of the same technologies. On the other hand, large cities in developing countries may find it more appropriate to use technologies usually found in wealthy countries. An expensive technology may be the most appropriate in a wealthy community with the ability to pay for and maintain it.

Such technology, as asserted in the book Small is Beautiful Schumacher, E. F.; Small Is Beautiful: Economics As If People Mattered : 25 Years Later...With Commentaries. Hartley & Marks Publishers ISBN 0881791695 by E. F. Schumacher, tends to promote values such as health, beauty and permanence, in that order.

What exactly constitutes appropriate technology in any given case is a matter of debate, but generally the term is used by theorists to question high technology or excessive mechanization, human displacement, resource depletion or increased pollution associated with unchecked industrialisation. The term has often, though not always, been applied to the predicaments of developing nations or underdeveloped rural areas of industrialized nations.

It could be argued that "appropriate technology" for a technologically advanced society may mean a more expensive, complex technology requiring expert maintenance. However, this is not the usual meaning of the term, and is not the meaning intended in this article.

Background of the term

The term came into some prominence during the 1973 energy crisis and the environmental movement of the 1970s. The economist (and former British Coal Board advisor) E. F. Schumacher of the UK was one of the originators of the concept.

A related term, intermediate technology, refers specifically to tools that cost more or are more sophisticated or complex than those currently in use in a developing nation but still much less costly, or less inaccessible, than those tools that would be used in a developed nation. Often, in a developing nation, this is a first step among "appropriate" criteria. As well, it is usually "appropriate" to use only technologies that can at least be locally repaired.

See also intermediate technology.

Different usages, controversies

One approach to the term, among advocates of voluntary simplicity (sometimes termed neo-luddites by others), is that "appropriate technology" is technology whose risk/cost/value tradeoff is compelling enough to justify continued use. Examples might include a clothesline, small kitchen gardens, home composting, better thermal insulation, or commuting by bicycle rather than automobile.

Many advocates who use the term "appropriate technology" imply changes that extend even to the "highest" technologies when those technologies are, in fact, the technologies best fitted to their applications. Use of radio broadcasts, cellular telephones or distance education might be considered appropriate "high technologies."

Another commonly encountered approach to the term "appropriate technology" is when it is used to describe specific technologies, like wind power, that provide an alternative to fossil fuels. Also, the term is sometimes used to describe things like the telephone, radio and television that can reduce the need for travel or replace print. Such usage is controversial, as, very often, windmills or electronics may rely on very high technology elsewhere, in their production.

Which technologies are truly "appropriate" was a matter of debate among those who pioneered the concept, and is still a matter of some debate. Further, the use of technologies that are appropriate is an issue for both industry and consumers. For instance, in recent years some consumers have heard the criticism that SUVs are not appropriate to transport one person from A to B on flat terrain and without transporting goods. The other extreme is the use of Alternative propulsion, which may involve investing more in the means (say, a car or motorcycle) than the average citizen can afford.

Sometimes, appropriate technology is a synonym of creating technology within GFDL (GNU Free Documentation License) and public domain, in collaborative environments (it can use a wiki or similar). In this sense, appropriate technology is not appropriative (proprietary) technology.

Intermediate technology

"Intermediate technology" can be a synonym for appropriate technology. It was used by E.F. Schumacher to describe technology that is at least an order of magnitude (10 times) more expensive than that prevalent in a developing nation but also at least an order of magnitude less expensive than that prevalent in a developed nation offering aid. It is a technology that can be easily purchased and used by poor people, and which can lead to greater productivity while minimizing social dislocation. Much intermediate technology can also be built and serviced using locally available materials and knowledge. For instance, if a typical workplace costs $1 to equip with primitive tools, but a competitive modern industrial approach would require a workplace costing $1000, then the 'intermediate technologies' are those that cost $10-$100 per workplace. The term was popularized by E. F. Schumacher and his colleagues working on early human development theory in the 1960s. It was explained in depth in his book Small is Beautiful, which offered a sharp critique of then-prevalent approaches to development aid.

Characteristics of these technologies

Low cost and low maintenance requirements are of prime importance. More frequent maintenance can be considered appropriate, if the maintenance can be done with locally available skills, tools, and materials. It is usually "appropriate" to use only technologies that can at least be locally repaired.

Not necessarily "low" technology

Appropriate technology can benefit from the latest research, as with the cloth filter which was inspired by research into the way cholera is carried in water. It may use very recent technology - for example, a type of white LED lights is used by the Light Up the World Foundation in remote areas of Nepal, due to their low power requirements and reliability.

Sustainability

Features such as low cost, low usage of fossil fuels and use of locally available resources can give some advantages in terms of sustainability. For that reason, these technologies are sometimes used and promoted by advocates of sustainability and alternative technology.

Some appropriate technologies

For a list of articles on this topic, see Category:Appropriate technology.

Some technologies that may be considered appropriate technology in the right context:

Information and communication technology

The laptop" target="_blank" >* and the Simputer are also aimed at developing countries, their primary advantage being low cost.

Eldis OnDisc* is a project which uses CDs and DVDs to give access to development information in areas without reliable and affordable internet access.

The Wind-up radio and the computer and communication system planned by the Jhai Foundation are independent from power supply.

There is also the Grameen Bank's telephone network, working in conjunction with its microfinance program, which gives Bangladeshi villagers access to communication.

They can use solar energy to power the network.

See also : LMDS, satellite internet and broadband internet for rural areas.

Construction

Adobe (including the variation called super-adobe), Rammed earth, Dutch brick, and Cob could be considered appropriate technology, as they make use of local materials and are thus relatively inexpensive. The local context must be considered as, for example, mudbrick may not be durable in a high rainfall area, and, if the materials are not readily available, the method may be inappropriate. Other forms of natural building may be considered appropriate technology, though in many cases the emphasis is on sustainability rather than affordability or suitability.

The organization Architecture for Humanity also follows principles consistent with appropriate technology, aiming to serve the needs of poor and disaster-affected people.

Energy

Biobutanol, biodiesel and straight vegetable oil can be appropriate, direct biofuels in areas where vegetable oil is readily available and cheaper than fossil fuels.

Renewable energy sources are often regarded as appropriate technologies, and they can be especially suitable for home, isolated and/or small scale power needs. However, cost must also be taken into account.

Electricity can be provided from solar cells (which are expensive but simple), wind power or micro hydro, with energy stored in batteries.

A generator (running on biofuels) can be run more efficiently if combined with batteries and an inverter; this adds significantly to capital cost but reduces running cost, and can potentially make this a much cheaper option than the solar, wind and micro hydro options.

Biogas is another potential source of energy, particularly where there is an abundant supply of waste organic matter.

Lighting

The Light Up the World Foundation uses white LED lights and a source of renewable energy such as solar cells to provide lighting to poor people in remote areas, providing significant benefits compared to the kerosene lamps which they replace.

The Safe bottle lamp is a safer kerosene lamp designed in Sri Lanka. The safety comes from a secure screw-on metal lid, and two flat sides which prevent it from rolling if knocked over.

Food preparation

Appropriate technologies can greatly reduce the labor required to prepare food, compared to traditional methods, while being much simpler and cheaper than the processing used in Western countries. This reflects E.F. Schumacher's concept of "intermediate technology," i.e. technology which is significantly more effective and expensive than traditional methods, but still an order of magnitude (10 times) cheaper than developed world technology. Key examples are the Malian peanut sheller, the fonio husking machine, and the screenless hammer mill.

Cooking

Smokeless and wood conserving stoves promise greater efficiency and less smoke, resulting in savings in time and labor, reduced deforestation, and significant health benefits. Briquette makers, of the type developed by the Legacy Foundation, can turn organic waste into fuel, saving money and/or collection time, and preserving forests.

Solar cookers are appropriate to some settings, depending on climate and cooking style.

Health care

A phase-change incubator, developed in the late 1990s, is a low cost way for health workers to incubate microbial samples.

Note that many appropriate technologies benefit public health, in particular by providing sanitation and safe drinking water. Refrigeration may also provide a health benefit. (These are discussed in the following paragraphs.)

Refrigeration

The pot-in-pot refrigerator is an African invention which keeps things cool without electricity. It provides a way to keep food and produce fresh for much longer that would otherwise be possible. This can be a great benefit to the families who use the device. For example, it is claimed that girls who used to have to regularly sell fresh produce in the market can now go to school instead, as there is less urgency to sell the produce before it loses freshness.

Water supply

Appropriate technologies for delivering water include the hippo water roller, which allows more water to be carried, with less effort; rainwater harvesting (which requires an appropriate method of storage, especially in areas with significant dry seasons); and fog collection, suitable for areas which experience fog even when there is little rain.

The roundabout playpump, developed and used in southern Africa, harnesses the energy of children at play to pump water; however at several thousand dollars it cannot be considered a low-cost option.

Handpumps and treadle pumps are generally more appropriate to developing world contexts than motor-driven pumps, and may provide better quality water with less travel time than surface water sources; however, even handpumps are often a problem, failing and left unused due to lack of maintenance. The principle of Village Level Operation and Maintenance is important with handpumps, but may be difficult in application.

Water treatment

Water may need purification before use, depending on the source and the intended use (with high standards required for drinking water). Groundwater may be clean enough, depending on depth and distance from sources of contamination such as latrines; rainwater may also be clean, especially if the early part of the rainfall is diverted to waste. However, it is often recommended to treat the water, to remove any doubt as to its safety.

The main processes are filtration, biofilm, sedimentation, heat, ultraviolet light, and chemical disinfection (using bleach - see water purification).

Slow sand filters are suitable for community or municipal level water treatment, and provide a very high quality output of water with relatively simple operation, and are used in wealthy nations as well as poor communities. Its downsides are the large area used and occasional downtime after maintenance; however, both of these can be reduced by changing the system of maintenance, and ploughing rather than scraping the surface. See article for details.

The crushed seeds of Moringa oleifera or Strychnos potatorum can be used as flocculants, allowing the impurities to be more easily removed by sedimentation or filtration.

A type of ceramic water filter was recently developed which can be made with clay, mixed with organic matter such as coffee grounds without a kiln, and fired using an open dung fire.

The LifeStraw is a small manufactured device which allows the user to drink straight from unclean water.

Cloth filters and solar water disinfection are suitable for use on a small scale, using jars or bottles, requiring only very few resources.

In some cases multiple methods may be used to produce safe drinking water. For example solar water disinfection requires fairly clear water, so a simple method of filtering, such as a cloth filter, may be used first.

Spring water typically doesn't need treatment, unless it is polluted at the outlet. The quality of water at the outlet may be protected with a spring box.

Sanitation

BiPu is a portable system suitable for disaster management, while other forms of latrine provide safe means of disposing of human waste at a low cost. The Orangi Pilot Project was a solution to an urban slum's sanitation crisis. Kamal Kar has documented the remarkably inexpensive latrines developed by Bangladeshi villagers once they became suffiently aware of the health problems with open defecation.

Reed beds can help to purify sewage and greywater.

Accessibility

The Whirlwind wheelchair provides mobility for disabled people who cannot afford the expensive wheelchairs used in developed countries.

See also

Some of the following links may not directly address the needs of developing world settings, but are relevant to the principles discussed here:

Programs

Development programs with an emphasis on appropriate technology include:

Organizations

People in this field

Prizes and competitions

Publication references

External links

Online resources

Email newsletters

Journals

Wiki and discussion sites

Wikis Note that these three wikis are all in early stages with few articles. Appropedia and the Village Earth project appear, in part, to attempt to duplicate Wikipedia's approach. The Development and Sustainability Wikia, however, aims to be a complement to Wikipedia. All three wikis allow material which would not be suitable for Wikipedia, such as information on original research, projects detailed how-tos, collaborations, and event notices.

Discussion sites - non-wiki:

Blogs:

Links to organizations

Some of these sites have information about appropriate technologies:

Links about specific projects

Types of technology | Survival skills | Sustainability | Appropriate technology | Simple living

Angepasste Technik

 

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the "Appropriate technology".

Home Page • arts • business • computers • games • health • hospitals • home • kids & teens • news • physicians • recreation• reference • regional • science • shopping • society • sports • world