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Anti-Americanism, often Anti-American sentiment, covers a broad range of attitudes and actions that are thought to be opposed or hostile to the government, culture, or people of the United States. Contemporary analysis of anti-Americanism typically focuses on international opposition to United States policy, though the concept includes a number of historical trends varying greatly in content and motive.

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarized. It has been described as an irrational phenomenon Hollander, Paul. Anti-Americanism: Irrational and rational, Transaction Publishers, 1995 that configures the United States and the American way of life as threatening at their core Ceaser, James W. "A genealogy of Anti-Americanism", The Public Interest, Summer 2003.. However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States O'Conner, Brendan. "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92.

Whether sentiment hostile to United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a truly prejudiced belief system, is a further complication. Increases in global anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies Rodman, Peter W. The world’s resentment, The National Interest, Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001, such as the Vietnam and Iraq Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005 wars, criticism of which may or may not be valid. For this reason, critics often claim the label is a propaganda item that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent.". The propaganda thesis has itself been challenged as a form of Anti-Americanism Berlinski, Claire. Why the Continent's Crisis Is America's, Too (2006) that seeks to frame the consequences of difficult US policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower statusKagan, Robert. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (2003).

Use of the term

The use of the term anti-Americanism has been catalogued from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s Roger, Phillipe. ''The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism,'' introductory excerpt, University of Chicago Press, 2005.. The related term "Americanization" (to which anti-Americanism is at least partly a response) has been dated to France as early as 1867 Rubin, Barry. "Understanding Anti-Americanism", Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004. Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" is thus partly a retroactive exercise, though there are numerous examples of hostility directed at the country from at least the late 18th century onwards.

Contemporary usage is often controversial. The term itself does not imply a critical attitude based on rational objections but rather a prejudiced system of thought and it is therefore rarely employed as a self-identifier (i.e. "I am anti-American...") as this implies bias. Instead, it is often used as a pejorative by those who object to another individual or group's stance toward the United States or its policies. Advocates of the significance of the term argue, for instance, that Anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism Foot, Rob. "The New Anti-Semitism?", Quadrant Magazine, vol, XLVIII n 4, April 2004.. Yet its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect: critics who view it as a propaganda term suggest a blanket label has a suppressive function over political discourse by conflating legitimate criticism with hateful rhetoric and prejudice. Certain scholars have also suggested that a plural of Anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America", in Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).. The widely-used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

History

Strong feeling against the United States (and at times the North American continent) has persisted since the country's original settlement, with criticisms varying greatly in content and motive.

Degeneracy thesis

Anti-American sentiment in Europe originates with the discovery of America, the study of the Native Americans, and the examination of its flora, fauna, and climate. The first anti-American theory, the "degeneracy thesis," portrayed America as a regressive and culturally bankrupt continent. The theory that the humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically and morally weakened both men and animals was commonly argued in Europe and debated by early American thinkers Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson. In 1768 Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of Prussia and chief proponent of this thesis, described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and claimed that "the weakest European could crush them with ease."de Pauw, Cornelius. Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains ou Mémoires interessants pour servir à l'histoire de l'espèce humaine. London, 1768. The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abbé Raynal wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science."Raynal, Abbé Guillaume-Thomas. Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes. Amsterdam, 1770. (So virulent was Raynal's antipathy that his book was suppressed by the French monarchy.)

Some argued that due to this degeneracy America was a threat to the world and as the novelist Henry de Montherlant put it in the voice of a character: "One nation that manages to lower intelligence, morality, human quality on nearly all the surface of the earth, such a thing has never been seen before in the existence of the planet. I accuse the United States of being in a permanent state of crime against humankind." needed The degeneracy thesis later shifted to focus on the cultural qualities of the United States (as sometimes evidenced today in hostility to the global expansion of McDonald's, Starbucks and other American institutions).

Romantic hostility

The French Revolution, seen by some as prompted by the American Revolution, created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the American project. The German poet Nikolaus Lenau encapsulated the Romantic view: "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (rootlessness) I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme."

Racialism

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the racialist theories of Arthur de Gobineau and others spread through Europe. The presence of blacks and "lower quality" immigrant groups made racialist thinkers discount the potential of the United States. The infinite mixing of America would lead to the ultimate degeneracy. Gobineau said that America was creating "greatest mediocrity in all fields: mediocrity of physical strength, mediocrity of beauty, mediocrity of intellectual capacities - we could almost say nothingness."

Anti-technology and consumerism

With the rise of American industry in the late nineteenth century, intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the Taylor system, and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition. Nietzsche wrote: "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent."

It has been claimed that this thesis transformed into a Heideggerian critique of technologism. Heidegger wrote in 1935: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man." A strange derivative of the thesis regarding the soullessness of America and its inherent threat to Europe was also used in Fascist rhetoric and in German and Japanese propaganda during World War II. It has been claimed that the Heideggerian critique, incorporated into existentialist (Sartre) and leftist thought after the war, played a central role in the political rhetoric of many Western European Communist parties.

Political hypocrisy

Samuel Johnson hit upon one theme that, in various and different forms, has long defined some forms of anti-American sentiment: the perceived hypocrisy of a supposed freedom-loving people engaged in less than admirable practices. Americans in his eyes were hypocrites in their relations with Indigenous peoples and African slaves: "How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American." Americans, for their part, mirrored this criticism with claims about the treatment of colonial subjects by European powers.

"The Other"

Just as the United States has defined itself against Monarchical and Communist countries during its history and may now be defining itself against terrorism or radical Islam, the use of anti-American ideologies may represent a way for nations to unify the country and bridge political divisions and/or to cover up evident flaws in its political or economic system. Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a claimed European strand of anti-Americanism, it is possible that it partially exists to assist the creation of a coalescing European identity.

Some critics argue that anti-Americanism ideology often correlates with other forms of perceived extremism, such as virulent nationalist movements, radical Islam, or communism. Self-proclaimed French anti-anti-American, Bernard-Henri Levy, described this view: "Anti-Americanism is a horror. ... It is a magnet of the worst. In the entire world and in France in particular, everything that is the worst in people's heads comes together around anti-Americanism: racism, nationalism, chauvinism, anti-Semitism."

Modern Anti-Americanism

Early Twentieth Century and Cold War

As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread among the Central Powers after the U.S. entered the First World War. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as Japan and Latin America, where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even amongst the United States's allies, Britain and France, there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and Great Depression and sometimes tended toward the anti-Semitic: the belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II, and in the Middle East after the war. The reverse - the belief that Israel was an American puppet state - also became common in some circles during the last third of the 20th century.

During the Cold War, anti-Americanism grew within the sphere of the Soviet Union and spread to some other parts of the world, such as Africa and Asia, that had previously held the United States in higher regard than the major European colonial powers. The Vietnam War boosted anti-American sentiment: here, American critics felt, was naked imperialism at its worst, though supporters were willing to forgive the misadventure given the larger priorities of the Cold War. In addition, the United States' support for right-wing authoritarian regimes and numerous covert operations during this era had been likewise criticized.

Post Cold War era

Paradoxically, the fall of the Soviet Union may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism, because the U.S. was left as the world's only superpower, and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. In addition, globalization, which many believe has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security, is often attributed to either US or Anglo-American influence.

The world at large
Groups currently described as Anti-American are highly diverse, including French intellectuals, Islamist fundamentalists, Latin American populists, through Americans themselves (within the United States the term "un-American" is as likely to be used). Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably. George W. Bush's first presidential term, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism Speulda, Nicole.Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005, with the 2003 invasion of Iraq and controversies such as the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp and CIA "torture flights" badly affecting global opinions of the U.S.CNN: Anti-Americanism in Europe deepens, February 14, 2003.

While the U.S. is not seen universally unfavorably in Europe and other Western countries, feelings of distrust and dislike toward the United States are widespread, particularly in some states in Western Europe. A survey in June 2005 showed that a majority of Europeans have an unfavorable image of America; however, two-thirds of those people opting for the "unfavorable" option declared that this was due to George Bush and his political actions.

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots, tracing to traumas of U.S.-supported dictators as well as economic and military interventionsTracing the Root of Anti-Americanism in Latin America, Review by Michael Shifter. Explicitly anti-American platforms have been adopted by leaders in the region, in part as a populist measure; this has been true in Cuba for decades and in Venezuela more recently.

In Japan and South Korea, much anti-Americanism has focused on the sometimes rude behavior of American military personnel, aggravated especially by repeated sexual assaults on locals by U.S. servicemen. The on-going U.S. military presence in Okinawa remains a contentious issue in Japan.Nicole Risse, Yonsei University: [The Evolution in anti-Americanism in South Korea: From Ideologically Embedded to Socially Constructed]; *

Middle East
The Middle East region has been a focal point of much Anti-American sentiment in the latter decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, often blamed on specific US policies in the region. The term Great Satan, as well as the chant "Death to America" have been in continual use in Iran since at least the Iranian revolution in 1979.

According to a Zogby International poll of Arab men and women in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates, negative attitudes toward the United States grew from large majorities in 2002 to practical unanimity in 2004 . According to the Zogby poll, Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein were tied in fourth place on a list of most admired world leaders.

See also

References

  • Julia Sweig, Friendly Fire: Losing Friends and Making Enemies in the Anti-American Century, PublicAffairs, 2006 ISBN 1586483005
  • Brendon O’Connor, "A Brief History Of Anti-Americanism: From Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, Vol. 23, No. 1, July 2004, p. 82.
  • Gerrit-Jan Berendse; "German Anti-Americanism in Context" Journal of European Studies, Vol. 33, 2003
  • Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies (2005)
  • Richard Z. Chesnoff, The Arrogance of the French : Why They Can't Stand Us--and Why the Feeling Is Mutual, Sentinel, April, 2005 ISBN 1595230106
  • John Dean and Jean-Paul Gabilliet; European Readings of American Popular Culture Greenwood Press, 1996
  • J. L. Granatstein, Yankee Go Home? Canadians and Anti-Americanism. (1996)
  • Paul Hollander, Understanding Anti-Americanism : Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad (2004)
  • Josef Joffe, Überpower: The Imperial Temptation (2006) reviewed
  • Chalmers Johnson, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire
  • Eric V. Larson, Norman D. Levin, Seonhae Baik, Bogdan Savych; Ambivalent Allies? A Study of South Korean Attitudes toward the U.S Rand, 2004
  • Richard Pells; Not like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II Basic Books, (1997)
  • Jean-Francois Revel, Anti-Americanism, (2002)
  • Philipe Roger, The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism (2005)
  • David Strauss; Menace in the West: The Rise of French Anti-Americanism in Modern Times Greenwood Press, 1978
  • Charles J. Swindells; "Anti-Americanism and Its Discontents" New Zealand International Review. Volume: 30. Issue: 1. 2005. pp 8+.
  • Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh; America and the Germans: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History - Vol. 2 University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990

External links

Anti-national sentiment | Foreign relations of the United States | persecution | politics | Racism

Antiamerikanismus | Antiamerikanismus | Antiamericanismo | Antiusonismo | Anti-américanisme | Antiamericanismo | Anti-Amerikanisme | 反米 | Anti-americanismo | Amerikkalaisvastaisuus | Antiamerikanism | 反美情绪

Notes

 

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