Ulema

Ulema is a common romanisation for the plural of Arabic ˤĀlim "scholar", namely ˤUlamā' (علماء). The same word appears in Turkish as ulema and in Persian as olæma. The ulema are Muslim scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari'a, that is, the Islamic law. While the ulema are understandably well versed in fiqh, some of them also go on to specialize in other sciences, such as philosophy (falsafah), dialectical theology (kalam) or Quranic hermeneutics (tafsir). The fields studied, and the importance given them, will vary from tradition to tradition, or even from seminary to seminary.

In a broader sense, the term ulema is used to describe the body of Muslim clergy who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences, such as a mufti, qadi, faqih or muhaddith. Some Muslims include under this term the village mullahs, imāms and maulvis who have attained only the lowest rungs on the ladder of Islamic scholarship; other Muslims would say that they must meet higher standards to be considered scholars.

Role

The ulema have different roles in different Islamic traditions.

They are most powerful in Shi'a tradition of Islam. Following the 1979 revolution in Iran, factions of the Iranian Shia clergy, under the leadership of Khomeini, took control of the country. This was justified by Khomeini's doctrine of "Guardianship of the Jurists" (Wilayat-i Faqih).

Afghanistan's Taliban regime was also headed by a mullah, Mullah Omar. However, in most countries, they are merely local power figures.

However, throughout all factions of Islam, a main job of ulema is the interpretation and mantainance of Islamic law in society, as well as mediating disputes, such as may arise over inheritance. They have also been influential as teachers and guardians of Islamic tradition.

Schools

The ulema usually work within a tradition (madhhab) that starts with one of five classic jurists. A Sunni Muslim jurist usually belongs to one of the four main schools:

Shafi'i (most common in Indonesia, Malaysia, Jordan and Palestine)
Hanafi (Turkey, the Balkans, Central Asia, Indian subcontinent, Egypt, China)
Maliki (North Africa, West Africa and several of the Persian Gulf states)
Hanbali (Arabia)

The Ja'fari school (Iran, Iraq, and parts of Afghanistan) is usually associated with the Muslims of Shi'ii persuasion.

Some ulema are not associated with any school, for various reasons. These include believing that schools are too conservative and that the idea of itjihad, the right to personal opinion, means that understanding of the Qur'an can change with the times.

History

The second half of the 20th century was marked by a considerable loss of authority and influence of the ulema in most Islamic states except Saudi Arabia and Iran. Many secular Arab governments attempted to break the influence of the ulema after their rise to power. Religious institutions were nationalized and the system of waqf "religious donations", which constituted the classical source of income for the ulema, was abolished.

In 1961 the Egyptian Nasser government put the Al-Azhar University, one of the highest Islamic intellectual authorities, under the direct control of the state. "The Azharis were even put in army uniforms and had to parade under the command of army officers" (G. Keppel, Jihad). In Turkey, the traditional dervish tekkes and Islamic schools were dissolved and replaced by state controlled religious schools in the 1950s and 1960s. After the independence of Algeria, President Ahmed Ben Bella also deprived the Algerian ulema of their power.

Role of the ulema in the ummah

The ulema in most nations consider themselves to represent the ijma "consensus" of the Ummah "community of Muslims" (or to represent at least the scholarly or learned consensus). Many efforts to modernise Islam focus on the reintroduction of ijtihad and empowerment of the ummah to form their own ijma.

Ulema as authors

Many ulema have left behind them only a lifetime of mediating disputes and giving sermons; their contributions, while admirable, did not include authorship. Other ulema have been prolific authors, penning translations of the Qur'an or Quranic commentaries, studies of hadith, works of philosophy, religious admonition, etc. There are enormous bodies of religious literature that form not only the substance of the courses in Islamic seminaries, but inspirational reading for the ordinary Muslim. Most of this literature has not been translated into English, but remains in its original language (usually Arabic, Urdu, Persian, or Turkish). Some has been printed; some remains in manuscript form.

Reference

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim -- Ulama in Contemparary Islam:Custodians of Change, Princeton, 2002